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iF-22 – Windows Manual – English

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Platform: Windows
Language: English
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Filename: if-22_win_manual_en_dm6.pdf

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iF-22 Raptor Manual

Copyright Notice
Copyright © 1997 by Interactive Magic, Inc. All rights reserved.
This manual and the computer programs on the accompanying CD-ROM are copyrighted and contain proprietary information. No one may give or sell copies of this manual or the accompanying CD or other
works of Interactive Magic, Inc., to any person or institution, except as provided for by written agreement
with the copyright holder. Disassembly, reverse compilation, and any other form of reverse engineering of
the programs on the CD are unauthorized. No one may copy, photocopy, reproduce, translate this manual,
or reduce it to machine-readable form, in whole or in part, without prior written consent of the copyright
holder. Any person/persons reproducing any portion of this program, in any media, for any reason, shall be
guilty of copyright violation and criminal liability as provided by law, and shall be subject to civil liability at
the discretion of the copyright holder.
Limited Warranty
Interactive Magic warrants that the CD-ROM on which the enclosed program is recorded will be free from
defects in materials and workmanship for a period of 60 days from the date of purchase. If within 60 days
of purchase the CD proves defective in any way, you may return the CD to Interactive Magic, 215 Southport
Drive, Suite 1000, Morrisville, NC, 27560, and Interactive Magic will replace the disk free of charge.
INTERACTIVE MAGIC MAKES NO OTHER WARRANTIES, EITHER EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, WITH RESPECT
TO THE CD OR THE SOFTWARE PROGRAM RECORDED ON THE CD OR THE GAME DESCRIBED IN
THIS MANUAL, THEIR QUALITY, PERFORMANCE, MERCHANTABILITY, OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE PROGRAM AND GAME ARE SOLD “AS IS.” THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THEIR QUALITY
AND PERFORMANCE IS WITH THE BUYER. IN NO EVENT WILL INTERACTIVE MAGIC BE LIABLE FOR
DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES RESULTING FROM ANY DEFECT IN
THE CD, PROGRAM, OR GAME EVEN IF INTERACTIVE MAGIC HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. (SOME STATES DO NOT ALLOW THE EXCLUSION OR LIMITATION OF
IMPLIED WARRANTIES OR LIABILITY FOR INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, SO THE
ABOVE LIMITATION OR EXCLUSION MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU.)
What to Do If You Have a Defective CD
Should you have a defective CD, please return the CD only (keep all other parts of the game) to our Customer Support Department, along with a note describing the problem you have encountered. A replacement CD will be provided upon our receipt of the defective CD.
Always make sure to include your name, address, and daytime telephone number with any correspondence.
Questions or Problems
If you have difficulties with this game and cannot find the solution in this booklet, please call our Technical
Support Line at (919) 461-0948, 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. EST Monday through Friday, and a member of our support
staff will assist you. We will be best able to help you if you are at your computer when you call.
You can also obtain customer service online. We can be reached as follows:
Email:
[email protected]
Web:
http://www.imagicgames.com
Interactive Magic and the Interactive Magic logo are trademarks of Interactive Magic, Inc. All other companies or products mentioned herein are the property of, and may be trademarks of, their respective owners.

Map disclaimer
The operation navigational map included with this product and the additional maps described in“Maps
(ONCs and TPCs)” on page 124 and “Maps (ONCs and TPCs)” on page 129 were created by National
Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) and are provided on an "as is" basis.
They are intended for use only with Interactive Magic’s F-22 Raptor simulation game and are not intended
for use to navigate aircraft or for any other purpose. Interactive Magic is not involved in the creation or
review of such maps and is not responsible for the accuracy or completeness of such maps. Interactive
Magic disclaims liability for all claims, losses, or damages of any kind whatsoever arising out of the use of
such charts, including but not limited to, actual, incidental, or consequential damages, even if advised of
the possibility of such damages.
Under 10 U.S.C section 456, no civil action may be brought against the United States on the basis of the
content of a navigational aid prepared or disseminated by either the former Defense Mapping Agency or
NIMA.
The NIMA material used in this product was developed to meet only the internal requirements of the
United States Department of Defense. The material is provided “as is,” and no warranty, express or implied,
including but not limited to the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for particular purpose or
arising by statute or otherwise in law or form a course of dealing or usage in trade, is made by NIMA as to
the accuracy and functioning of the material.
Neither NIMA nor its personnel will be liable for any claims, losses, or damages arising from or connected
with the use of this material. The user agrees to hold harmless the United States NIMA. The user’s sole and
exclusive remedy is to stop using the product.

Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction

The iF-22 Raptor simulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
System requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Hardware requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
OS requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
System Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Acrobat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
How to use this manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Quickstart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Controlling your aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Engaging the enemy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Ending Instant Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Single missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Takeoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Ending single missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Chapter 2: General Simulation Concepts and Tutorials

Simulation overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Simulation modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Contents

Where to go from here . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Setting up a simulation with the personal digital assistant (PDA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Pilot concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Pilots and difficulty settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Loading saved simulations (locations) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Deleting saved simulations (locations) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Saving mission sets to Custom Mission List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Loading custom mission sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Deleting custom mission sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Difficulty settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Flying single missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Flying in campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Starting a campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Ending a campaign. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Flying in multiplayer dogfights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Starting a dogfight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Ending a dogfight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Flying in multiplayer capture the flag missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Starting capture the flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Ending capture the flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Flying in multiplayer cooperative single missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Starting a mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Ending a mission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Chapter 3: Preflight Operations

PDA buttons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Chat line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Simulation clock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
World coordinates: UTM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
PDA flowchart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
PDA: Main Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
PDA: Instant Action Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
PDA: Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Contents

PDA: Theater Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
PDA: System Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
PDA: Calibrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
PDA: Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
PDA: Ready Room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
PDA: Create/Edit Pilot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
PDA: Configure MFDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
PDA: Pilot Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
PDA: Pilot Decorations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
PDA: Individual Decoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
PDA: Hall of Fame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
PDA: Theater Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
PDA: Campaign Update . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
PDA: Mission Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Mission types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Mission briefings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
PDA: Mission Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Current mission line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Waypoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Aircraft formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Mission map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Map tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Window buttons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
PDA: Multiplayer Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
PDA: Network Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
PDA: Session Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
PDA: Save. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Chapter 4: Flight Operations

Aircraft Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Flight Controls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Flight Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

vii

Contents

Angle-of-Attack limiter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Autopilots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Accelerated time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Fuel Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Heads-Up Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Multifunctional displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Instrument panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Weapon systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
View systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Internal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
External . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Toggling views with the view function keys (F1 and F3 through F11). . . . . . . . . . 91
Aircraft damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Using your wingmen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Multiplayer sessions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Taking off and landing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Dogfighting: air-to-air attacks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Bombing: air-to-ground attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Deep Strike, stealthy infiltration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Defensive countermeasures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Chapter 5: Postflight Operations

Ending a mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Debriefing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
PDA: Mission Debriefing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Victory and defeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
PDA: Campaign Debriefing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Campaign progression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Resupply and reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

viii

Contents

Ending a campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
PDA: Campaign Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Pilot statistics, medals, and awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Multiplayer sessions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Chapter 6: General Principles

105

Air Force organizational units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Flight principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Basic physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Maneuvering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Basic fighter maneuvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
Stalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Spins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Blackouts and redouts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Ejecting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Stealth principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Types of search and track systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Maximizing stealth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Chapter 7: Campaign Scenarios

119

The Bosnian Conflict. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Allied forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Enemy forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Maps (ONCs and TPCs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
The Russo-Ukrainian War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Allied forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Enemy forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Maps (ONCs and TPCs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Appendix A: Aircraft, Vehicle, and Weapon Reference Data

131

Aircraft data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Contents

US-Built aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Russian-Built aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Anti-Aircraft vehicle data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
US-Built anti-aircraft vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Russian-Built anti-aircraft vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Ground combat vehicle data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
US-built ground combat vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Ukrainian-built ground combat vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Russian-built ground combat vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Weapons data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
US-built air-to-air weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
US-built air-to-ground weapons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
US-Built ground-to-air weapons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Russian-Built air-to-air weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Russian-Built ground-to-air weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Appendix B: Ribbon and Medal Historical Data

159

Appendix C: Pre-scripted Communication Messages

161

Glossary

163

Designer’s Notes

167

Project History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Feature Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Credits

171

Introduction

The Lockheed-Martin (Lockheed) F-22 Raptor
is the US Air Force’s next generation air-to-air
fighter, the Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF). It
combines some of the best features of the F-15
Strike Eagle and the F-117A Stealth Fighter.
Designed to meet the USAF’s requirement for
an aircraft with long-range, supersonic cruise
(without afterburner) capability, it also relies
heavily upon the same stealth technology
highlighted by the spectacular performance of
the F-117A in Panama and the Gulf War.
The first YF-22 was tested by Lockheed in September 1990. Following some embarrassing
episodes in the fly-off competition between
the YF-22 and YF-23, including the bizarre
crash of one of the two existing YF-22 prototypes about two years later, the Air Force
decided to proceed with the Lockheed YF-22
aircraft design.
The final design of the F-22 was approved in
February 1995. The Air Force currently has an
Engineering and Manufacturing Development
(EMD) contract worth $11 billion for the production of nine flightworthy and two ground
test aircraft. The first EMD aircraft was officially “rolled out” of the Lockheed assembly

plant on April 9, 1997, with its first flight
scheduled for May 1997. Low-rate initial production is scheduled to start in late 1998. The
Air Force plans to procure 442 F-22s with production running through 2012. The F-22s will
take over the air-superiority role with Air
Combat Command in 2004 with significant
combat deployments starting mid- to late
2003.

The iF-22 Raptor
simulation
iF-22 Raptor is a state-of-the-art flight simula-

tor highlighting the newest weapon in the
USAF’s arsenal. iF-22 Raptor presents a truly
remarkable aircraft with unprecedented
stealth capabilities, incredible agility though
thrust vectoring, blinding supercruise speeds
of up to 1.6 Mach, and a cutting-edge integrated avionics package. Combined with a
dynamic campaign/mission generation system
and photorealistic terrain, these features make
iF-22 Raptor the most realistic simulation of
the F-22.

Chapter 1: Introduction

Use the stealthy nature of your F-22 to locate
and attack aerial and ground targets before
they even know you exist. With the radar
cross-section of a small bird or bee, you can
sneak around hostile airspace unseen. One
question that constantly faces you is when to
use stealth as a weapon and when to use actual
weapons at the expense of stealth. You might
be able to get those two MiGs, but will the
intervening SAM site get you?
iF-22 Raptor uses two-dimensional thrust vectoring and a full flight control system to
achieve remarkable agility. Through thrust vectoring, your F-22 can maintain angles-ofattack exceeding 60 degrees, or you can snap
the aircraft’s nose around for a quick missile or
gun shot. The flight control system uses any or
all of the F-22’s control surfaces to perform
desired maneuvers, which allows you to perform incredible feats at both high and low
speeds.
With iF-22 Raptor’s integrated avionics package, you can concentrate on your mission
objectives while the aircraft’s high-tech computer worries about the technical details. For
example, when using radar operation, you
specify that you want information regarding
an aircraft in your Multi-Functional Displays
(MFDs). The avionics package then searches
all the available sources of data—active radar,
passive radar, and In-Flight-Data-Links
(IFDLs)—and presents you with the most
complete answer. You don’t have fumble with
horizontal and vertical radar search angles or
modes anymore!
Another key feature of this game is the
dynamic campaign/mission generation system. Most games use a limited number of prescripted or “canned” missions. Each of these
missions is exactly the same every time you fly
it. In iF-22 Raptor, no two missions are alike;
the campaign system generates a new set of

missions each time you fly, based on the current state of the war.
Just like the real F-22, iF-22 Raptor has supercruise capability, which allows it to reach
speeds in excess of Mach 1.6 without the use
of afterburners. With afterburners, your plane
is capable of speeds over Mach 2.4. Supercruise also greatly increases the combat radius
of the F-22 to over 1,500 miles, compared to
700 miles for the F-15.

System requirements
Hardware and operating system requirements
are outlined in the next two sections.

Hardware requirements
Minimum: Pentium 90 MHz, 16 MB RAM, 4x
CD-ROM, 640x480 SVGA monitor, keyboard,
and mouse.
Preferred: Pentium 133 MHz, 16 MB RAM, 4x
CD-ROM, 800x600 SVGA monitor, two-button joystick, keyboard, and mouse.
Ideal: Pentium 166 MHz or Pentium Pro,
32 MB RAM, 6x CD-ROM, 1024x768 SVGA
monitor, 3D accelerator board, two-button
joystick, throttle, rudder pedals, keyboard, and
mouse.

OS requirements
iF-22 Raptor runs under Windows 95 only. It
contains AutoPlay functionality, which detects
and launches the simulation whenever the
iF-22 CD is placed in the CD drive. If AutoPlay
is unavailable or disabled on your computer,
the simulation also installs and launches using
standard Windows 95 icons. See “Installation”
on page 3 for details.

Installation

Installation
To install iF-22 Raptor, insert the Raptor Disc
1: Bosnia Theatre CD into your CD-ROM
drive. After a few seconds, an AutoPlay
options window is displayed. Click on the
Install iF-22 Raptor button to start the installation process. An installation wizard, iF-22
Raptor Setup, is launched and guides you
through the rest of the setup procedure.
If the computer does not have an AutoPlayenabled CD-ROM drive or is running 16-bit
CD-ROM drivers, the autoplay options window may not be displayed.
In this case, browse the files on the CD-ROM
drive in either Explorer or My Computer.
Launch the iF-22 Raptor Setup wizard by double-clicking on the setup.exe file.

System Drivers
iF-22 Raptor and many other Windows 95
products require system drivers to operate correctly. During the installation process you may
be asked to update drivers and/or restart your
machine to finish the setup. These are normal
operations of computers under Windows 95.
If you know in advance that you do not need
either the DirectX or Indeo drivers, you can
select not to install them during the setup process. They can both be installed later by
launching the demos from the Demos and
Drivers button on the AutoPlay options
screen. After the main demo window
appears, selecting the System menu will provide access to all of the drivers available on the
CD. If you have setup problems, please contact Interactive Magic customer service (see
“Questions or Problems” on page ii).

DirectX

under Windows 95. The driver set included on
iF-22 Raptor is DirectX 3.0. To run iF-22 Raptor correctly, at least the drivers included on
Raptor Disc 1: Bosnia Theatre or their equivalent should be installed.
As video and audio boards continue to evolve,
more recent DirectX drivers may become available from the manufacturers of these hardware devices. To aid in the installation and
updating of the DirectX subsystem, a special
function has been provided to examine your
system’s DirectX drivers.
Right-click on the CD-ROM icon in either
Explorer or My Computer to display a menu
with the option (Un)Install DirectX. Select
this option to display a window with the current versions and certifications for the drivers
currently installed. There are also options for
removing and/or updating the individual drivers or driver set.

Indeo
This is the digital video player developed by
Intel. It is required to display the animation
and video files in iF-22 Raptor. It is a high-performance multimedia codec that is used by
many Windows 95 applications. The Indeo
installation can also be accessed directly in
much the same way as DirectX.
Right-click on the CD-ROM icon in either
Explorer or My Computer to display a menu
with the option Install Indeo. Select this item
to launch the Indeo setup wizard.

Acrobat
Acrobat Reader is provided on the CD-ROM
and is installed by default at the end of the
iF-22 Raptor setup. Acrobat is provided to
access online documentation found on the
CD.

This is a set of system drivers for high-performance graphics, sound, and network play

Chapter 1: Introduction

A duplicate version of this manual is provided
online with any updates that could not be
included at press time. From within the Acrobat Reader the manual file can be viewed and
printed. The file is located on Raptor Disc 1:
Bosnia Theatre in the manual subfolder.
In addition, a Dash-34 Operations Manual is
provided as an online document. This is a Raptor game supplement and provides insight
into actual Air Force tactics and operations.
The file is located on Raptor Disc 1: Bosnia
Theatre in the manual subfolder.

How to use this manual
This manual is divided into the following
sections:
• Chapter 1, “Introduction,” presents a basic
overview of the simulation and explains
how to quickly get into the action in the
Quickstart section.
• Chapter 2, “General Simulation Concepts
and Tutorials,” provides a detailed description of the simulation including detailed
discussions of general simulation concepts.
• Chapter 3, “Preflight Operations,” contains
information needed to navigate the simulation’s menus and perform functions such
as saving simulations, creating/editing
pilots, and multiplayer chatting.
• Chapter 4, “Flight Operations,” provides
the information you need to perform inflight functions such as flying your aircraft,
evading the enemy through stealth and
maneuvers, targeting, aircraft instrumentation, and damage control.
• Chapter 5, “Postflight Operations,”
describes debriefings, victory and defeat,
and awards, and pilot death.
• Chapter 6, “General Principles,” explains
flight dynamics and stealth principles.

• Appendices on campaign scenarios; aircraft, vehicles, and weapons data; ribbon
and metal historical data; and pre-scripted
communications messages.
• Glossary
• Index

Quickstart
Instant Action is always a great place to start. It
gives you a quick feel for the simulation.
Here’s what you do:
1. Start the simulation by inserting one of

the simulation CDs and clicking Play. Or,
click the Start button, select Programs,
and then select iF-22 Raptor.
2. Select Fly Instant Action on the Main

Options window. The first time you start
after installation, Instant Action
automatically starts after the opening
scenes. Otherwise, you can start Instant
Action from the Main Options window by
clicking Fly Instant Action.
You’re flying.

Controlling your aircraft
Control your aircraft by using a joystick or the
stand-alone keyboard arrow keys. Right and
left joystick or arrows roll the aircraft; for
example, a 180-degree roll inverts the plane.
Up and down arrows (forward and back joystick) control the pitch of the aircraft, pointing
the nose up or down; +90 degrees is straight
up, and -90 degrees is straight down.
When you begin Instant Action, ignore nearby
enemies and get a feel for your aircraft. Use the
number keys (1 through 0) above the main
keyboard (not the ones on the keypad) for
throttle control. Preset thrust values run from
10 percent (the 1 key) through 100 percent
(the 0 key). The - key (hyphen) decreases

Quickstart

throttle by 10 percent and the = key (equals)
increases throttle by 10 percent. The * key
(asterisk) on the keypad toggles your afterburners on and off.

Engaging the enemy
After you’ve gotten a feel for flying the F-22,
find an enemy and target it. Locate an enemy
aircraft (a filled red circle with a red line
extending from it) by looking down at the
center Multifunction Display (MFD). It is
located directly below the external view and
the Heads-Up Display (HUD) in the center of
the upper portion of the cockpit that shows
the outside world.
If you don’t see any enemy aircraft, turn slowly
until one appears in the MFD. Target an aircraft by turning toward it and pressing the L
key. On the MFD, a solid white circle appears
around the red circle, indicating your weapons
are locked on that target. If the target is within
the view area of your HUD, a large targeting
triangle appears around the target. If it is not
inside the HUD, a line extends from the center
of the HUD and points in the direction you
should fly to find the target.
Your current weapon is an AIM-120C
AMRAAM missile (lower left corner of the
HUD), which is a medium-range missile with
a range of approximately 5 to 30 miles. When
you get within about 15 miles of your target, a
SHOOT cue should be displayed along the
bottom of the HUD. Press the space bar to fire
your missile, and watch it try to track and hit
the target.
Instead of using an AMRAAM, try selecting an
AIM-9X Sidewinder by pressing Enter until it
appears in the lower left corner of the HUD.
The Sidewinder has a much shorter range of
approximately 3.5 miles, so you’ll have to get
in close to use it. With a little luck, you’ll be an

Ace in no time (see “Difficulty settings” on
page 12 for more information).

Ending Instant Action
Instant Action ends when you press Ctrl-Q (to
end mission) or Ctrl-E (to eject from your aircraft) or if you are shot down. Review the
debriefing window to see how you did and
then click the Continue button (at the bottom
of the window) to go to the Main Options
window.
To review or change the Instant Action settings, click the Instant Action Setup button
on the Main Options window. This allows you
to select your starting conditions (in the air or
on the runway), enemy difficulty level, the
default flight model for your F-22, and other
general flight settings. If you prefer to go
directly into Instant Action after the introduction, select the Instant Action in Startup
check box. When you’re done, select Accept to
save or Cancel to delete your changes.
NOTE: These simulation settings apply only

to Instant Action gaming sessions.

Single missions
To get more experience, try flying a single mission. Single missions are more detailed than
Instant Action—you get to select the pilot and
the setting for the conflict—but do not contribute to a larger conflict in the same way as
campaign missions. Follow these steps to start
a single mission:
1. Start the program by inserting one of the

simulation CDs and clicking Play. Or,
click the Start button, select Programs,
and then select iF-22 Raptor.
2. Select Report for Duty on the Main
Options window.

Chapter 1: Introduction

3. Select Single Player in Report for Duty:

Ready Room. The default pilot is a Green
Pilot with green, or novice, difficulty
settings. You can change difficulty settings
with the Edit button or by selecting the
Average Pilot or Ace Pilot.
4. Select a theater, then select Single Mission
on the Single Player: Theater Selection
window. You can select either Bosnia or
the Ukraine as your theater. Then click the
Single Mission button. You may be
prompted to insert a different CD in your
drive.
5. To view briefings (detailed descriptions of
the mission) for the available missions,
click on a mission in the left side of the
window, and the right side displays the
mission briefing. If you don’t like any of
the available missions, click Generate
New Set of Missions for another set of
missions.
6. Select a mission, then Accept Mission on
the Mission Selection window.
7. You can edit your mission in the Mission
Planning window if you like. On your first
mission, we recommend you review the
mission plan, but don’t edit it. Select
Payload to review your armaments,
Waypoints to review your course, and
experiment with the map buttons to
display pertinent information. When
you’re done, click Takeoff.
You’re flying.

Takeoff
Each of the default pilots begin missions at the
end of the runway, ready to takeoff. Start both
of your engines by pressing Ctrl-L and Ctrl-R.
Next, disengage your wheel brakes by pressing
the W key. Increase your throttle to full military power by pushing your throttle stick all

the way forward or by pressing the 0 key (not
the keypad 0 key).
When your aircraft reaches 150 knots (middle
left side of the HUD) pull back on the flight
stick until your pitch is approximately 20º
(the revolving ladder in the center of the
HUD). Climb out until you reach 10,000 ft.
(middle right side of the HUD), and then level
off. Look at the center MFD, and turn your aircraft until you line up on your first waypoint
leg (green line between the two green waypoint icons). In the HUD, look for a small
“tadpole.” If the tadpole is not in the center of
your HUD, turn your aircraft until it is. You’re
now ready to go hunting!

Landing
To land, get within 20 miles of your last waypoint. At that point, press the / key (slash) to
activate your Instrument Landing System
(ILS). In the center MFD, your mission waypoints are replaced by landing waypoints for
your home airfield. Follow the line extending
from your plane until you reach the first landing point, which is the outer marker. The outer
marker, middle marker, and touchdown point
form a straight line.
While traveling to the middle marker, decrease
your speed to around 150 knots and your altitude to approximately 1,000 ft. Use the radar
altimeter (press Shift-A until a small R is displayed above your altitude readout in the
HUD) to determine your exact height above
the terrain; the barometric altimeter shows
only the height above sea level. The two lines
in the HUD indicate the perfect glide slope to
touchdown at the touchdown point. After you
reach the middle marker, you need to get the
two lines to form a cross in the center of your
HUD.
At a range of approximately five miles, you see
the runway. Put your landing gear down

Quickstart

(G key) and extend your flaps (H key). Use
your rudder keys (Z and X keys) to make
minor course corrections to line up perfectly
with the runway. Be careful not to let your
speed rise because your landing gear is automatically raised at 225 knots. You can use
your airbrake (B key) to help maintain your
speed.
Stay lined up with the runway and continue
down until you land on the runway. Immediately after touchdown, cut your throttle to idle
(1 key) and apply your wheel brakes (W key)
until your speed is below 80 knots. At this
speed, you can steer your aircraft’s nose wheel
by moving your flight stick right and left. If
your speed rises above 80 knots, you must
steer your aircraft with only the rudders.

Ending single missions
A single mission ends if you press Ctrl-Q (to
end the mission) while on the ground, or
press Ctrl-E (to eject from your aircraft), or if
you are shot down. Review your results in the
Debriefing window. Significant success may
earn you a space in the Hall of Fame, a promotion, and even a medal award. After debriefing, you return to the Mission Selection
window, where you can select another mission. Select the Main button at the bottom of
the PDA to return to the Main Options window, or select the Cancel button to return to
the Theater Selection windows.

Chapter 1: Introduction

General Simulation Concepts and
Tutorials

Simulation overview
In iF-22 Raptor, you are the pilot of the
United States’ most advanced jet fighter. You
use stealth technology, aerobatic skills, and
tactical planning to win campaigns in Bosnia
and the Ukraine. You are not a lone pilot
unrelated to the rest of the war, but part of a
full-scale effort. Up to three wingmen fly with
you on your mission, while other pilots are
simultaneously carrying out other missions
vital to the success of your campaign.
To make iF-22 Raptor even more interesting,
you can fly in one of the three multiplayer
modes: Head-to-Head Dogfight, Head-toHead Capture the Flag, and Cooperative Single Missions.

Simulation modes
There are six modes of simulation in iF-22
Raptor:
•
•
•
•

Instant Action
Single missions
Campaigns
Multiplayer head-to-head dogfight

• Multiplayer head-to-head capture the flag
• Multiplayer cooperative single missions
Select Instant Action to hit the ground running and swing into action immediately, as
described in “Quickstart” on page 4. Single
missions are for the times when you want to
make decisions that affect your mission success, such as waypoint planning and weapon
loadout selection, but aren’t interested in a
long-term campaign.
The campaign mode analyzes your mission
success as part of a larger war effort. As you fly
missions, the front line moves to reflect the
successes and failures of your side. But be
warned, the enemy is doing their best to overcome your efforts, and even though you may
fly a perfect mission, your comrades may not!
In iF-22 Raptor, you can fly in one of three
types of multiplayer modes. In the head-tohead dogfight mode, it’s a free-for-all “furball,” during which each player uses missiles
and cannons to shoot others down. Of course
you’re free to form your own alliances.
In head-to-head capture the flag mode, players
form two teams and attempt to overwhelm

Chapter 2: General Simulation Concepts and Tutorials

Finally, in the cooperative single mission
mode, players work together, along with computer-controlled wingmen, to accomplish a
single goal. But look out, enemy computercontrolled aircraft and SAMs are out to end
your plans!

maps and rulers are no longer used to plot and
plan missions. Instead, pilots use small handheld computers called personal digital assistants (PDAs) to review and plan their missions. After entering the mission information,
the pilot hands the PDA over to an aircraft
technician who uploads the information into
the F-22’s computer systems. The pilot then
has complete access to mission specifics during flight. For more information on PDA settings, see Chapter 3, “Preflight Operations.”

Where to go from here

Pilot concepts

The remainder of this chapter describes each
simulation mode in detail. Read Chapter 3,
“Preflight Operations,” to understand more
about how to navigate through F-22’s presimulation windows. Chapter 4, “Flight Operations,” discusses the weapons delivery,
avionics, and operating principles of the F-22
Stealth Fighter. Chapter 5, “Postflight Operations,” explains mission success, campaign
progression, pilot rewards, and pilot death.
The appendices offers statistical/historical
information on the world in iF-22 Raptor.

Pilots and difficulty settings

the opposing forces, which consist of opposing players and SAM/AAA sites. The scenario
ends when one side captures the intervening
neutral air base by landing its computer-controlled C-17 transport on the field.

Also included with iF-22 Raptor is a Dash-34
Nonnuclear Weapon Delivery Manual, USAF
Series F-22A Aircraft, which describes F-22A
weapon systems and their use.

Setting up a simulation
with the personal
digital assistant (PDA)
Simulations can be divided into two phases:
setting up and playing. The Personal Digital
Assistant (PDA) is the mechanism for setting
up the simulation.
In the early 21st century, the US Air Force is a
highly computerized organization. Printed

In iF-22 Raptor you are a pilot with a name,
career, and predefined difficulty settings. When
you initially load the simulation, there are
three default pilots available in the Ready
Room—Green Pilot, Average Pilot, and Ace
Pilot—with difficulty settings reflected by their
first name. To select a pilot, click the Report
for Duty button and then click on a pilot.
Your selected pilot and his difficulty settings
are then used for all single player sessions, single and campaign missions. To edit a pilot’s
difficulty settings, click the Edit Pilot button
in the Ready Room.
Each pilot’s history is saved in a single file,
which is updated when you save a simulation.
This represents the experience you’ve gained
throughout your career, not just in a single
mission or campaign. This means that once
your pilot is promoted, you are promoted for
all subsequently loaded simulations. So
although you can save more than one simulation for your pilot, you have only one current
career state. When you resume a saved simulation, it’s like being transferred to that location.
When you resume another simulation or start
a new campaign, you’re sent to another location.

Pilot concepts

Creating a new pilot

NOTE: When you delete a pilot, you also

To create a pilot, select Report for Duty. Once
in the Ready Room, click the Create Pilot button under the Pilot Roster (see “PDA: Create/
Edit Pilot” on page 31).

delete all of the associated saved simulations
(locations).

Editing a pilot
To edit a pilot, select Report for Duty. Once
in the Ready Room, select a pilot and select
the Edit Pilot button under the Pilot Roster
(see“PDA: Create/Edit Pilot” on page 31).

Saving pilots and locations
You can save pilots and their current simulation locations in the Ready Room, Theater
Selection, Campaign Update, Mission Selection, Mission Planning, and Debriefing windows. To save a pilot and location, click on the
Save button on the bottom of the PDA. The
window changes to a Save Current Simulation
(see “PDA: Save” on page 55) window.
To save your simulation, pick the options you
want and select the Accept button, which
updates the Pilot file with the current status of
the pilot and saves the current state of your
simulation. You can cancel the save process by
selecting the Cancel button at any time. After
you select the Accept button, location information describing your simulation is displayed in the Ready Room to the right of your
pilot. This information includes the name of
the window where you saved the simulation
followed by as much of the save simulation
description as possible, which ensures that
location names are unique.

Deleting a pilot
To delete a pilot, select Report for Duty. Once
in the Ready Room, select the pilot you want
to delete and select the Delete Pilot button
under the Pilot Roster.

Deleting a location or saved game
To delete a previously saved game or location,
select Report for Duty. Once in the Ready
Room, select the game you want to delete and
the Delete Location button under Locations.

Loading saved simulations
(locations)
With the PDA Save options (see “PDA: Save”
on page 55), you can save a simulation and
resume play later. There are two ways to load
previously saved simulations:
• Select the Resume button on the Main
Options window to load and resume the
pilot and location shown on the Main
Options window.
• Select the Resume button in the Ready
Room window to load and resume the currently selected pilot at the currently
selected location.
When you resume a simulation, the window
automatically changes to the saved location
window, and the associated pilot and simulation state are loaded.

Deleting saved simulations
(locations)
To delete a pilot, click Report for Duty, select
the saved simulation (location) you want to
delete and press the Delete Location button.
If you delete the last location for a pilot, a
default location of Ready Room is automatically created.

Chapter 2: General Simulation Concepts and Tutorials

Saving mission sets to Custom
Mission List
In addition to saving simulations, you can also
save sets of dynamically generated missions
independent of pilots. Since iF-22 Raptor generates new missions on the fly, saving missions
lets you play the same mission several times or
share a fun mission with a friend. Mission sets
are saved after they are generated in the Mission Selection or Mission Planning windows
or immediately after mission completion in
the Debriefing window.
To save a mission setup, select the Save button
in the PDA. On the Save window, select the
Save Mission Set button at the top of the window and type an appropriate description in
the New Information field to identify your
mission set. Then select the options you want
and click Accept to save the simulation. Click
Cancel to return to your previous window
without saving.
When you save a mission set during a campaign, only the missions and current campaign state are saved. Therefore, it is not
possible to continue a campaign using custom
mission sets. Saved missions sets are accessed
through the Mission Set option on the Mission
Selection window during Custom Mission
game sessions.

a theater associated with it. Select a custom
mission set from the list. Notice that the available missions change when you select a new
custom mission set. After you’ve selected a
mission, you go to the Mission Planning window, fly the mission, get your debriefing, and
then return to the Mission Selection window.
To end the custom mission session, click the
Cancel button on the Mission Selection window to return to the Theater Selection
window.

Deleting custom mission sets
Custom mission sets are located in the Missions directory under the directory you specified during install. To delete a custom mission
set, browse the directory with Windows
Explorer and delete the appropriate file.

Difficulty settings
In iF-22 Raptor, pilots have their own difficulty
settings. When you create or edit a pilot, there
are default difficulty settings that you can
change.

Single player sessions
In single player sessions, the active pilot’s difficulty settings are automatically used.

Instant Action sessions

Loading custom mission sets
To load a previously saved generated mission
set, start a Single Player session from the Ready
Room. On the Theater Selection window,
select the Custom Mission button. This takes
you to the Mission Selection window, where
you can browse the available mission sets
(descriptions of all previously saved custom
mission sets). Don’t worry about which theater is highlighted on the Theater Selection
window, because each custom mission set has

When you start an Instant Action session,
iF-22 Raptor uses the difficulty settings specified within Instant Action Setup. You can
change these settings through the Instant
Action Setup window. Select the Copy Active
Pilot Settings button to copy your active
pilot’s settings into the Instant Action Setup
window.

Multiplayer sessions
When you start a multiplayer session, the
default difficulty settings for the session are

Flying single missions

the same as those of the session creator’s pilot.
The session creator can then decide to allow
players to determine their own settings.

Enemy Skill Level setting
The Enemy Skill Level setting deserves special
attention because it affects more than just how
well the enemy flies. It affects all nonplayer
aircraft and ground units and basically sets the
overall difficulty of the theater. The settings in
order of increasing difficulty are as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•

Harmless
Green
Fair
Average
Veteran
Ace

When you select a skill level, such as Ace, all
computer-controlled aircraft fly at approximately that skill level. Their choice and execution of maneuvers, their general decisionmaking, and their reactions are all affected.
But beware, not all pilots fly alike at the same
skill level. Pilots have their own personalities
and perform differently. One pilot may react
quickly to a threat and fire all of his missiles
and miss the target, while another pilot may
react slowly, fire only one missile, and hit.
Both of these reactions are possible at the
same Enemy Skill Level setting because of different pilot personalities.
The Enemy Skill Level setting affects both
ground and air units, including the overall
awareness of ground units and the rate at
which they fire.

Flying single missions
In single missions, you can fly any mission
you like without being affected by the circumstances of a campaign. Your pilot can earn

promotions and awards, become Missing In
Action (MIA), and die. Remember to save your
simulation after flying single missions to
update your pilot’s permanent file.
To fly a single mission, follow the steps outlined in “Quickstart” on page 4.

Flying in campaigns
Campaigns offer a set of single missions with
an underlying theme. In a campaign, there is
an entire war being waged around you. You
are assigned to a squadron stationed at an air
base behind the front line. Each mission you
fly influences the overall success of the ground
and air war, so you help decide the fate of the
conflict. The object of each campaign is to
push the enemy off the theater map by directly
and indirectly supporting the ground war. The
ground wars are conducted by computer-controlled generals who decide when and where
to mount offensives. Check the Campaign
Briefing page of the Campaign Update window for a list of the planned friendly and
enemy ground offensives. Remember, you can
destroy everything in an area of the front line,
but if the ground forces don’t move in and
secure the ground (have an advance planned
there), it isn’t yours. There are two campaigns
available in iF-22 Raptor: the Bosnian Conflict
and the Russo-Ukrainian War.

Starting a campaign
To start a campaign, follow the steps outlined
in “Quickstart” on page 4, but select the Campaign button on the Theater Selection window instead of the Single Mission button.

Ending a campaign
There are three ways to conclude a campaign:

Chapter 2: General Simulation Concepts and Tutorials

• Push the enemy out of the combat area by
continually moving the front line forward.
• Survive long enough for United Nations
peace negotiations to allow you to end the
war in a stalemate (as in the Korean Conflict).
• Get pushed out of the combat area by letting the enemy continually move the front
line into friendly-controlled areas.
NOTE: It is possible to play more than one
campaign at the same time. Save your current
campaign, return to the Theater Selection
window, and begin a new campaign. The first
time you save the new campaign, use the
Create New Save option; otherwise you’ll
overwrite your other campaign.

Flying in multiplayer
dogfights
Dogfights are free-for-all fights with everyone
against everyone else. This is a great way to
show off your piloting prowess. Each aircraft
starts in the air near a different edge of the
playing area with a specified weapons loadout.
Hunt down your opponents by using your
missiles or guns, and when your ammunition
gets low, fly under 300 ft. over an air base to
rearm and refuel. But be warned, you’re a sitting duck when you go in to rearm/refuel, and
your enemies know it!

Starting a dogfight
To start a dogfight, follow these steps:
1. Start the simulation by clicking on the

iF-22 Raptor icon.
2. Select Report for Duty on the Main
Options window. If your simulation goes
directly into Instant Action, end it by pressing Ctrl-Q. You then go to Main Options
window.

3. Select Multiplayer in the Ready Room.

Choose your pilot or take the default
pilot, which is the last pilot saved.
4. Select a multiplayer connection type on
the Multiplayer Setup window. DirectPlay
in Windows 95 will autodetect all of the
connection types available on your
machine. After you select your connect
type, select the Accept button.
5. Navigate the DirectPlay menus to establish a connection.
6. Select either Join Session or Create Session on the Network Setup window. Select
your connection option, Join or Create. If
you choose Create Session, then you
must first select the type of simulation,
Head-to-Head Dogfight, the number of
potential players, and the session name.
7. Set up the session parameters and change
your status to Ready on the Session Setup
window. If you created the session, you
need to set up the session parameters,
which are the same as your pilot’s parameters by default. Specify the aircraft
armament for the session and then change
your pilot’s status to Ready by clicking in
the checkbox next to your callsign. When
at least two people are ready, select the
Accept button to begin the session. Others
can join the simulation after you’ve begun.
You’re flying.
After you exit the session, you go to Debriefing
to review your results. When you leave the
Debriefing, you go to the Network Setup window.

Ending a dogfight
You can exit a dogfight by pressing Ctrl-Q. You
can also exit the simulation entirely by pressing Ctrl-X. If you exit and you are the session
creator, everyone exits with you.

Flying in multiplayer capture the flag missions

Flying in multiplayer
capture the flag missions
Capture the flag is a head-to-head team scenario. Each player belongs to one of two
teams, Blue or Red. The playing field is set up
with a Blue airfield, a Red airfield, and an
intervening neutral airfield.
NOTES: When computer-controlled SAM/

AAA are destroyed, they are gone forever. The
object of the simulation is to gain air
superiority (control the skies) over the
neutral air base and then have your computercontrolled C-17 transport aircraft land on the
neutral base to seize it. To launch your C-17,
send the communications message general
(recipient) “Launch the Airbase Attack,”
using any communications system (U key for
UHF, K key for IFDL, Ctrl-G for Guard).
Computer-controlled C-17s regenerate after
two minutes. You can refuel and rearm your
plane by landing at your own air base (if you
began on the runway) and by coming to a
complete stop or by flying under 300 ft. above
your air base (if you began in the air).

Starting capture the flag
To start a capture the flag session, follow these
steps:
1. Start the simulation by clicking on the

4. Set up the session parameters and change

your status to Ready on the Session Setup
window. If you created the session, you
need to set up the session parameters.
They are the same as your pilot’s parameters by default. Change your pilot’s status
to Ready by clicking in the checkbox next
to your callsign. When all of the players
are ready, select the Accept button to
begin the session.
NOTE: You cannot join this session once it
has begun.
You’re flying.
After you exit the session, you go to Debriefing
to review your results. When you leave the
Debriefing, you go to the Network Setup window.

Ending capture the flag
You can exit a capture the flag session by pressing Ctrl-Q. You can also exit the simulation
entirely by pressing Ctrl-X. If you exit and you
are the session creator, everyone exits with
you.

Flying in multiplayer
cooperative single
missions
In iF-22 Raptor, you can fly cooperative single
missions during which one player is the flight
leader and up to three others are wingmen.
When you set up the multiplayer portion of
the session, the mission selection and planning are almost identical to single player missions. The only exception is that the flight
leader can edit everything except the wingmen’s armaments, which are the only things
the wingmen can edit.

Chapter 2: General Simulation Concepts and Tutorials

Starting a mission
To start a cooperative single mission session
follow these steps:
1. Start the simulation by clicking on the

iF-22 Raptor icon.
2. Follow Steps 2 through 5 in “Starting a
dogfight” on page 14.
3. Select either Join Session or Create Session on the Network Setup window. Select
your connection option, Join or Create. If
you choose Create Session, then you
must first specify the type of simulation,
Cooperative, the number of potential
players, and the session name.
4. Set up the session parameters and change
your status to Ready on the Session Setup
window. If you created the session, you
need to set up the session parameters.
They are the same as your pilot’s parameters by default. Change your pilot’s
status to Ready by clicking in the checkbox next to your callsign and under the
Status heading. When all of the players are
ready, select the Accept button to begin
the session.
NOTE: You cannot join this session once it
has begun.

5. Select a mission and then Accept mission

on the Mission Selection window. Each
time you click on a mission, the briefing
on the right changes. The briefing is where
you get your best idea as to the true nature
of the mission. If there are no missions
that you like, select the Generate New Set
of Missions button to give you another
set of missions.
6. Edit your mission as desired and then
select the Takeoff button on the Mission
Planning screen (see “PDA: Mission Planning” on page 43 for more information).
You’re flying.
After you exit the session, you go to Debriefing
to review your results. When you leave the
Debriefing, you go to the Network Setup window.

Ending a mission
You can exit a cooperative single mission by
pressing Ctrl-Q. Remember, you must land
and come to a complete halt to get full credit
for your mission. You can also exit the simulation entirely by pressing Ctrl-X. If you exit and
you are the session creator, everyone exits with
you.

Flying in multiplayer cooperative single missions

Chapter 2: General Simulation Concepts and Tutorials

Preflight Operations

This chapter describes the elements that make
up the Personal Digital Assistant (PDA),
which you use to complete preflight operations.

To send

Press

A chat message

' key (single quote or
click in the chat line

A UHF message

U key

PDA buttons

An IFDL message

K key

There are three buttons on the PDA:

A guard message

Ctrl-G

• Main—Sends you to the Main Options
window from any other PDA window
• Save—Sends you to the Save window
where you save pilots/games (locations)
and custom missions
• On/Off—Exits iF-22 Raptor

Chat line
The chat line is the black line at the bottom of
the PDA window. Use it to type messages to
other human players and to display all incoming messages.
You can send several types of messages:

See “Communications” on page 61 for explanations of the different message types. When
you initiate a outgoing message, the chat line
expands to two text lines; the top line is for
incoming messages, and the bottom line is for
outgoing messages. The word “Who:” is displayed on the chat line, and a list of possible
recipients is displayed in the upper left portion of the window. Type the number associated with the recipient. After you designate a
recipient, the word “What:” is displayed on
the chat line along with a list of possible messages in the upper left of the window (only for
non-chat messages). You can either type a custom message or type a number corresponding
to one of the pre-scripted messages. To send
the message, press Enter or click the Send button. To cancel sending a message, press Esc.

Chapter 3: Preflight Operations

NOTES: Computer recipients do not

understand custom messages.
While you send a message, the keyboard can
be used only for communications—only the
flight controls arrow keys work.

Simulation clock
Throughout iF-22 Raptor, you’ll see different
times specified. All times are simulationrelated (not actual) times specified with a
24-hour system in Greenwich Mean Time
(GMT) or Zulu (Z) time identical to the US
military. Zulu time is based on the actual time
in Greenwich, England, and therefore may not
be intuitive for other locations. Sunrise for an
area five time zones east of the Greenwich
time zone will be around 0200Z, while in the
US, which is five zones west of Greenwich, it’s
at 1200Z. The sunrise and sunset times for
your theater of operation are at the bottom of
each briefing on the Mission Selection
window.

World coordinates: UTM
In iF-22 Raptor, maps and theaters are
described in terms of the Universal Transverse
Mercator (UTM) map projection. UTM coordinates describe locations in the world with the
following format: a two-letter zone designation describing a 100 kilometer by 100 kilometer area in the world; X, a number showing the
meters east within the zone; and another number, Y, showing meters north within the zone.

Look at ONC map F-2, which is provided with
the game. Find Rome (spelled “Roma”) in the
center of Italy on the west coast. Rome’s UTM
coordinates are approximately TG (light blue
capital letters below Rome):89000:42000.
The UTM coordinate system is a rectangular
grid mapped onto a circular surface, the Earth.
This produces some boundary problems
because the coordinate system warps to follow
the surface. When two UTM grid zones (a
group of smaller UTM zones) meet, there
tends to be overlap in the X and possibly the Y
directions, along with a general renaming of
individual UTM zones (XX changes to AF
instead of the expected YX). With this in mind,
each theater in iF-22 Raptor is represented by
at least two grid zones, and the UTM coordinates along the intersection of grid zones
jump or change rapidly (see the provided
ONC).
You can find UTM coordinates in the Mission
Planning window under the Waypoints button, on the hcat line in the Missing Planning
window when the Info On/Off button is
selected, on the cockpit display over the left
MFD, and in the Communications/Navigation
MFD mode. The Communications/Navigation MFD and cockpit display provide UTM
coordinates to the nearest 100 meters (for
example, NS:800:250).

PDA flowchart
The following diagram shows the paths you
can take when setting up a simulation:

PDA flowchart

Main Options

Instant Action
Instant Action Setup
System Setup
Database
Resume

Ready Room

Create Pilot
Edit Pilot
Delete Pilot
Delete Location
View Statistics
Hall of Fame
Resume

Multi-Player

Single Player

Multi-Player Setup

Theater Selection

Network Setup

Campaign Update
(as needed)

Session Setup

Mission Selection

Mission Selection
(as needed)

Mission Planning

Takeoff

Chapter 3: Preflight Operations

PDA: Main Options
The Main Options simulation window is the
first window you see when you start iF-22 Raptor. It contains the following options:
Fly Instant Action—Initiates an Instant Action
simulation session where you can fly short,
high-intensity missions when you don’t have a
lot of time.
Instant Action Setup—Displays a window
where you can customize the Instant Action
environment.

Resume—Resumes the simulation described
by the pilot, location, and description listed
above the button.
Theater Setup—Displays the Theater Setup
window, where you can install and uninstall
terrain sets for iF-22 Raptor.
Report for Duty—Displays the Ready Room
window, where you manipulate pilots, load
saved simulations, go to the Hall of Fame, or
start a single- or multiplayer simulation session.

Fly Training—Displays a window where you
can initiate a training mission session.

System Setup—Displays the System Setup
window, where you can customize how the
simulation runs.

View Introduction—Shows the introductory
movie and then returns you to the Main
Options window.

Database—Displays the Model Database window, where you can review the various models
in the simulation.

PDA: Instant Action Setup

View Credits—Shows the iF-22 Raptor game
credits and then returns you to the Main
Options window.

PDA: Instant Action Setup
The Instant Action Setup window lets you
change the Instant Action environment and
how it is accessed. It contains the following
options:
Instant Action on Startup—Specifies whether
you want to go directly into Instant Action
after the introduction windows and movies.
Number of Wingmen—Lets you set the number of wingmen in Instant Action.
Theater—Lets you select the theater to be used
in Instant Action.

Number of Enemy Aircraft—Lets you set the
number of enemy aircraft in Instant Action.
Flight Model—Lets you specify the flight
model you want to use when flying Instant
Action.
No Collisions with Objects—Turns off collisions between objects other than weapons and
the ground.
No Crashes—Turns off collisions with the
ground; your aircraft will bounce off the
ground if you crash.
Invulnerable to Weapons—Makes it impossible for your F-22 to be damaged by weapons.
Unlimited Ammunition—Gives your F-22
unlimited ammunition.
Unlimited Fuel—Gives your F-22 unlimited
fuel.

Chapter 3: Preflight Operations

Enemy Skill Level—Lets you specify the
enemy skill level in Instant Action.
No Blackouts or Redouts—You will not black
out or red out when performing severe
maneuvers. In addition, you will not suffer
from whiteouts when looking at or toward the
sun.
Difficulty Level—This is how hard Instant
Action sessions are, based on your current settings, with 100 percent being the hardest and 0
percent being the easiest.
Begin Instant Action—On the runway: Starts
your plane on the runway whenever you start
Instant Action. In the air: Starts your plane in
the air whenever you start Instant Action.
Fly Instant Action—Accepts all changes to this
window and initiates an Instant Action session.

Copy Active Pilot Settings—Copies the preferences from your current pilot (see “PDA: Create/Edit Pilot” on page 31) into the Instant
Action Setup window.
Accept—Accepts all changes to this window
and returns you to the Main Options window.
Cancel—Returns you to the Main Options
window without saving any of your changes.
NOTE: These preferences are for Instant

Action only.

PDA: Training
The Training window lets you choose preset
training environments or set up custom training environments in which you can sharpen
your skills. It contains the following options:

PDA: Training

Mission Window—This window allows you
to select one of iF-22 Raptor’s preset training
missions
Mission Briefing Window—This window lists
the briefing for the currently selected training
mission and directs you to sections in the
iF-22 Raptor manual that are particularly helpful for this mission
Theater—Specifies the theater for training
missions
Begin Mission—Specifies the starting position
for training missions: in the air or on the runway
Flight Model—Specifies the flight model for
training missions
Enemy Skill Level—Specifies the overall skill
level for all computer-controlled aircraft and
ground units, from Harmless (easiest) to Ace
(hardest)
Number of Wingmen—Specifies the number
of wingmen present for training missions
Number of Enemy Aircraft—Specifies the
number of enemy aircraft for training
missions
Take Off—Begins the currently selected training mission
Cancel—Returns you to the Main Options
screen
We recommend you fly the training mission
with their default parameters before customizing them with the above options.

Chapter 3: Preflight Operations

PDA: Theater Setup
The Theater Setup window allows you to load
one or more of iF-22 Raptor’s theaters onto
your hard drive and lets you specify whether
you want the small or large install for each theater. You must have at least one theater
installed on your hard drive to play iF-22 Raptor. This window contains the following
options:
iF-22 Drive—This is the complete file path for
iF-22 Raptor’s location on your hard drive

Install Required and Optional Files for
Selected Theater—This installs all of the files
for the currently selected theater to your hard
drive; this option greatly enhances iF-22 Raptor’s performance
Install Required Files for Selected Theater—
This installs only the required files for the currently selected theater to your hard drive; This
option saves a lot of hard drive space, but
reduces iF-22 Raptor’s performance

Free Space—This is the remaining hard drive
space on the iF-22 drive

Theaters on your Hard Drive—Lists all of the
theaters currently on your hard drive followed
by the level of files installed (required only or
required and optional)

Theaters on the CD-ROM—Specifies the theaters on your current CD-ROM along with
their required and optional install sizes; if you
change CD-ROMs, you must select the Refresh
button to display the new theaters

Remove Required and Optional Files for
Selected Theater—Removes all of the files for
the currently selected theater from your hard
drive; this making the theater unplayable until
reinstalled

PDA: System Setup

Remove Optional Files for Selected Theater—This removes only the optional files for
the currently selected theater from your hard
drive; the means the theater can still be
played, but with reduced performance
Refresh—Checks your CD-ROM and hard
drive for theater files and updates free space,
theaters on CD-ROM, and theaters on hard
drive information

Preflight Screen Resolution—Sets the preflight or PDA screen resolution.
Flight Screen Resolution—Sets the flight or
simulation screen resolution.
Preflight Music Volume—Sets the volume for
the preflight music.
Flight Music Volume—Sets the volume for
the flight music.

Continue—Exits the Theater Setup window
and returns you to the Main Options window

Sound Effects Volume—Sets the volume for
sound effects.

PDA: System Setup

Use Direct 3D Board—Allows you to specify
and use a Direct 3D board to enhance your
machine’s performance.

The System Setup window lets you customize
how iF-22 Raptor performs on your computer.
It contains the following options:

Terrain Detail— Sets the maximum possible
terrain texture detail allowed within the game.
Model Detail—Sets the maximum possible
model resolution allowed within the game.

Chapter 3: Preflight Operations

Display Clouds—Allows clouds to be displayed during flight.

Accept—Accepts all changes to this window
and returns you to the Main Options window.

Display Smoke Trails—Allows smoke trails to
be displayed during flight.

Cancel—Returns you to the Main Options
window without saving any of your changes.

Flight Stick—Lets you select a control device
to act as the flight stick: joystick, keyboard, or
keyboard autocentering (AC).

PDA: Calibrate

Throttle—Lets you select a control device to
act as the throttle: throttle or keyboard.

The Calibrate window lets you to calibrate
your flight controls for optimum performance.
It contains the following options:

Rudders—Lets you select a control device to
act as the rudders: rudder pedals, keyboard, or
keyboard AC.
Calibrate—Takes you to the Calibrate window. Use this function to change a control
device to anything other than keyboard or keyboard AC.

Joystick Port 1—Makes the Windows 95 Joystick Port 1 controls the active control set. You
probably won’t change this setting, but you
will need to recalibrate your controls before
playing the game.
Joystick Port 2—Makes the Windows 95 Joystick Port 2 controls the active control set. You
probably won’t use this setting.

PDA: Database

Dead Zone—Lets you set the dead zone for
the current control device. If the bar or dot for
a device is “jumpy” after you calibrate it,
increase the dead zone until it stops moving.
Button—Shows you the last button pressed.
Keystroke—Shows you the last keystroke; a
useful feature for keyboard-emulating control
devices.
Device—Lets you choose the device you want
to calibrate (joystick, throttle, or rudder).
Calibrate—Begins the calibration sequence
for the currently selected device. Follow the
directions at the bottom of the window.
Accept—Accepts all changes to this window
and returns you to the System Setup window.
Cancel—Returns you to the System Setup window without saving any of your changes.

PDA: Database
This window allows you to browse some of
the models available in iF-22 Raptor and to
read text descriptions about them. It contains
the following options:
Model Type—Lets you choose the category of
game models you want to preview.
Model Selector—The up and down arrows on
the right side of the currently selected model
let you cycle through all models of the
selected type.
Description—This is a brief text description of
the currently selected model.
Continue—Returns you to the Main Options
window.

Chapter 3: Preflight Operations

PDA: Ready Room

where you can edit the settings for the selected
pilot in the Pilot Roster list

The Ready Room window lets you do everything from switching the active pilot to starting a multiplayer session. The window is
divided into six areas:

Delete Pilot—Deletes the selected pilot in the
Pilot Roster list

•
•
•
•
•
•

Pilot Roster
Pilot Locations
Location Description
Active pilot information
Active pilot picture and squadron emblem
General buttons

The window contains the following options:
Create Pilot—Displays the Create Pilot window; the default settings are those of the
selected pilot in the Pilot Roster list
Edit Pilot—Displays the Edit Pilot window

Delete Location—Deletes the selected location in the Pilot Locations list
View Statistics—Displays the View Statistics
window for the currently selected pilot in the
Pilot Roster list
View Decorations—Displays the View Decorations window for the currently selected pilot
in the Pilot Roster list
Resume—Resumes the simulation for the
pilot selected in the Pilot Roster list at the
selected location
Single Player—Begins a single-player session,
which includes single missions, campaigns,
and custom missions

PDA: Create/Edit Pilot

Multiplayer—Begins a multiplayer session,
which includes dogfights, capture the flag, and
cooperative single missions
Hall of Fame—Displays the Hall of Fame window where you can view the top pilots
Main Options—Takes you to the Main
Options window

PDA: Create/Edit Pilot
The Create Pilot and Edit Pilot windows are
identical. They allow you to create a new pilot
or edit an existing pilot. When you press the
Create Pilot or Edit Pilot button on the Ready
Room window, the Create/Edit Pilot window
is displayed. When you are creating a new
pilot, the default settings are identical to the
selected pilot in the Pilot Roster, so you can
copy the pilot’s settings but not his or her

career (statistics and decorations). The pilot
difficulty or pilot preferences apply to all single and multiplayer sessions, although you
can temporarily change them in a multiplayer
sessions on the Session Setup window. The
Create/Edit Pilot window contains the following options:
Name—Specify a name for your pilot.
Callsign—Specify a callsign for your pilot.
Squadron—Specify a squadron name for your
pilot.
Pilot Picture—Cycle through the available
pictures to choose one for your pilot.
Squadron Emblem—Cycle through the
available emblems to choose one for your
squadron.
Flight Model—Specify the flight model you
want to use.

Chapter 3: Preflight Operations

No Collisions with Objects—Turns off collisions between objects other than weapons and
the ground.
No Crashes with Ground—Turns off collisions with the ground. Your aircraft will
bounce off the ground if you crash.
Invulnerable to Weapons—Makes it impossible to damage your F-22.
Unlimited Ammunition—Gives your F-22
unlimited ammunition.
Unlimited Fuel—Gives your F-22 unlimited
fuel.
Enemy Skill Level—Specify the enemy skill
level.
No Blackouts or Redouts—Prevents you from
suffering a blackout or redout when performing severe maneuvers. In addition, you will
not suffer from whiteouts when looking at or
toward the sun.
Difficulty Level—Sets the difficulty of the single-player portion of the simulation—single
mission, campaign, and custom mission—
based on your current settings; 100 percent is
the hardest and 0 percent the easiest.
Configure MFDs—Displays the Configure
MFDs window, where you can define custom
MFD configurations.
Accept—Accepts all changes to this window
and returns you to the Ready Room window.
Cancel—Returns you to the Ready Room window without saving any of your changes.

PDA: Configure MFDs
This window allows you to customize the
MFD configuration sets. MFD configuration
sets allow you to change the modes in your
four MFDs to a predefined sets of MFD modes
based on different actions such as landing or

dogfighting. This window contains the following options:
MFD Set—Specifies the MFD set you want to
edit
Cockpit graphic—Displayed in the MFDs
within this graphic are the MFD modes specific to the currently selected MFD set. To
change a MFD to a different MFD mode simply click in the MFD. While your cursor is over
a MFD the name of the corresponding MFD
mode is displayed under the MFD Set area.
Accept—Saves your MFD sets and returns you
to the Create/Edit Pilot window
Cancel—Returns you to the Create/Edit Pilot
window without saving any of your changes

PDA: Configure MFDs

Chapter 3: Preflight Operations

PDA: Pilot Statistics
The Pilot Statistics window displays a list of
statistics for the selected pilot in the Pilot Roster list or for the Hall of Fame pilot that you
selected. You cannot edit the pilot statistics
and pictures. This window contains the following options:
View Decorations—Displays the Pilot Decorations window
Hall of Fame—Displays the Hall of Fame window
Ready Room—Displays the Ready Room

PDA: Pilot Decorations

PDA: Pilot Decorations
The Pilot Decorations window displays the
decorations (rank and awards) held by the
pilot selected in the Pilot Roster or the Hall of
Fame pilot that you double-clicked. You can
view more information on a given decoration
by clicking on it. The Pilot Decorations window contains the following options:
View Statistics—Displays the Pilot Statistics
window
Hall of Fame—Displays the Hall of Fame
window
Ready Room—Displays the Ready Room

Chapter 3: Preflight Operations

PDA: Individual
Decoration
This window is a view-only window that displays information about an individual rank or
award, including its name, picture, and histori-

cal description (if available). To display this
window, select a rank or award by clicking on
it in the Pilot Decorations window. There is
only one option on this window:
Continue—Displays the Pilot Decorations
window

PDA: Hall of Fame

PDA: Hall of Fame
The Hall of Fame window has two modes:
overall and mission. The overall mode looks
at the top ten pilots in terms of their overall
careers. Overall careers include all of the missions that the pilot has flown including single
missions and campaigns. The top ten mission
pilots are only considered for the mission rating of their best mission. To view the statistics
of any pilot in the Hall of Fame, select the
pilot’s plaque by clicking on it. The Hall or
Fame contains the following options:
Reset—This option resets both Hall of Fame
windows with the original sets of ten pilots
that were shipped with iF-22 Raptor.
Continue—Takes you to the previous PDA
screen.

Chapter 3: Preflight Operations

PDA: Theater Selection

Theater list—Select the theater in which you
want to fly.

This window lets you select a theater or terrain
set for your single mission or campaign. There
are two terrain sets in iF-22 Raptor: Bosnia and
Ukraine. One of these terrain sets is always
selected by default. After you select your theater, you select either Single Mission or Campaign. You can also close theater selection by
selecting Ready Room. The Theater Selection
window contains the following options:

Single Mission—Begins a single mission and
displays the Mission Selection window.

Campaign—Begins a campaign and displays
the Campaign Update window.
Custom Mission—Begins a custom mission
session and displays the Mission Selection
window.
Ready Room—Closes the Theater Selection
window and displays the Ready Room.

PDA: Campaign Update

PDA: Campaign Update
When you start a campaign or after you complete a campaign mission debriefing, the
Campaign Update window is displayed. This
window has three different pages: Campaign
Overview, Campaign Briefing, and Campaign
Map. When you start a new campaign, this
window defaults to the Campaign Overview
page. This page gives a general background for
the campaign and tells you how your squadron got involved. It also gives you the overall
campaign objectives, with which you can
judge your progress.
The second page is the Campaign Briefing
page. It gives you squadron-specific information, such as the number of squadron aircraft
remaining and how many mission and sorties
are scheduled. In addition, this page lists the

planned friendly and enemy ground advances
for the current campaign cycle (turn). You can
use this information later to select a mission
that takes you where the action is.
The final page is the Campaign Map page,
which is dominated by a map of the campaign
area. The front line is displayed as a solid line
with a series of icons that indicate where
ground offensives are planned. To help you
judge the progression of the ground war, the
previous front line is displayed as a dashed
line.
The Campaign Update window contains the
following options:
Mission Selection— Displays the Mission
Selection window.
Theater Selection—Cancels your session and
displays the Theater Selection window.

Chapter 3: Preflight Operations

PDA: Mission Selection
The Mission Selection window is divided into
three areas: Missions (left), Mission Briefing
(right), and general buttons. When running a
custom mission session, the Mission Set
option above the Missions area lets you select
a custom mission set. During all other sessions, this option is locked to Generated Missions. Generated Missions are missions that
were randomly generated for this cycle by the
mission generation system. Custom Missions
are individual missions that were previously
saved by you or another player (see “Saving
mission sets to Custom Mission List” on
page 12). To select a mission, click on it in the
Missions area.
The Mission Briefing area displays the briefing
for the missions that is selected in the Mis-

sions area. The mission briefing includes the
objective, number of aircraft, timing information, aircraft electronic emission control suggestions, and climatology/meteorology data.
The Mission Selection window contains the
following options:
Mission Set—Displays available mission sets
for current session type. If you are running a
custom mission session, use this option to
select a mission set.
Missions Window—Displays a list of all the
missions related to the current mission set.
Select a mission by clicking on it.
Generate New Set of Missions—Prepares a
new set of Generated Missions for single mission sessions only. This option is not available
for campaigns and custom missions.

PDA: Mission Selection

Accept Mission—Takes you to the Mission
Planning window.
Cancel Mission—Closes the Mission Selection window and displays the Theater Selection window for single missions, the Network
Setup window for multiplayer cooperative single missions, or the Campaign Update window for campaign missions.

Mission types
There are 11 types of missions in iF-22 Raptor:
Close Air Support (CAS), Battlefield Air Interdiction (BAI), Ground Strike, Deep Strike,
Runway Attack, Airfield Attack, Combat Air
Patrol (CAP), Air Superiority, Escort, Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD), and
Scramble. Brief descriptions of each mission
type and their objectives follow:
CAS—CAS missions are air-to-ground missions supporting front-line troops. Some possible mission objectives are to destroy frontline enemy units such as tanks, infantry fighting vehicles, etc.
A FAC is always available for this mission type.
You may use laser-guided munitions such as
the Paveway GBU-12B, 16B, 24A, and 24A/B
bombs (see “Laser designator” on page 60).
BAI—BAI missions are air-to-ground missions supporting front-line troops by destroying rear area reinforcements and supplies.
Some possible mission objectives are to
destroy rear area vehicles, supplies, and command centers.
Ground Strike—Ground Strike missions are
air-to-ground missions behind enemy lines
that are targeted on medium-to-high value
enemy units and structures. Some possible
mission objectives are to destroy key enemyheld features such as factories, early warning
radar stations, and ammo/fuel dumps.

Deep Strike—Deep Strike missions are air-toground missions far behind enemy lines that
are targeted on medium-to-high value enemy
units and structures. Some possible mission
objectives are to destroy key enemy held features, including factories, early warning radar
stations, and ammo/fuel dumps.
Runway Attack—Runway Attack missions are
air-to-ground missions against enemy runways
and hardened hangers. This mission requires
GBU-31A/B penetration bombs to destroy the
targets.
Airfield Attack—Airfield Attack missions are
air-to-ground missions against enemy airfield
buildings, including control towers. Unlike
Runway Attack, this mission does not require
special munitions to destroy the targets.
CAP—CAP missions are air-to-air missions
during which you patrol an area of friendly
airspace and engage all enemy aircraft encountered.
Air Superiority—Air Superiority missions are
air-to-air missions during which you patrol an
area of enemy airspace and engage all enemy
aircraft encountered.
Escort—Escort missions are air-to-air missions during which you protect a flight of
friendly aircraft against all enemy aircraft
encountered. The flight you are escorting
depends on you to protect them from all airto-air threats.
SEAD—SEAD missions are air-to-ground missions during which you destroy all surface-toair missile (SAM) and anti-aircraft artillery
(AAA) units encountered. Not far behind you
is a flight of friendly aircraft, which are
depending on you to destroy the ground-to-air
threats in their path.
Scramble—Scramble missions are spontaneous air-to-air missions during which your sole
objective is to protect your airbase or other

Chapter 3: Preflight Operations

nearby friendly position from invading enemy
aircraft.

Mission briefings
Mission briefing description and abbreviations
are as follows:
FM: From message sender.
TO: To message recipient.
SUBJ: Subject.
MSN NR: Mission number.
Type: Mission type.
AIRCRAFT: Aircraft, number, and type of mission aircraft.
TGT: Target.
ORD: Ordinance, default aircraft payload.
T/O: Takeoff time.
TOT: Time on target—the game time you
should be at the target; try not to arrive early
or late at your targetbecause others are
depending on you.
TOS: Time on station—tells you if you need to
stay over the target area for an extended period
of time by displaying “As Fuel/Ord (ordinance) Permits.”
Amplifying Instructions: Other mission
details including Emission Controls
(EMCON). EMCON is defined as:
EMCON 1: Radio—No restrictions; Radar—
No restrictions; IFF/IFDL—No restrictions
EMCON 2: Radio—No restrictions at airfield, minimize airborne; Radar—Intermittent search outside target area, no
restrictions over target; IFF/IFDL—No
restrictions

EMCON 3: Radio—Minimize at airfield,
emergency only airborne; Radar—
Restricted, use over target only; IFF/IFDL—
Minimize
EMCON 4: Radio—Restricted; Radar—
Restricted, use over target only; IFF/IFDL—
Restricted, receive only
NOTE: IFF stands for Identify Friend or Foe;
IFDL stands for In Flight Data Link.
Intelligence (reliability #%): The quality of
the mission intelligence (the reliability of
enemy-related information—and of computer-generated waypoints based on known
enemy positions) and the anticipated threat
levels your F-22 will encounter from air-to-air,
ground-to-air, and electronic warfare (EW)
threats. Electronic warfare threats are defined
as the number of radar or Infrared Search and
Track (IRST) units you are expected to encounter. These units are considered a threat because
the F-22 relies heavily on stealth.
Ceiling: Height of the lowest cloud layer and
its thickness.
Visibility: Average distance to the view horizon in nautical miles.
Wind Speed: Wind speed in knots (nautical
miles per hour).
Wind Direction: Wind direction in degrees
from north.
Start Twilight: Time that nighttime ends, and
nighttime to daytime transition begins.
Sunrise: Time that daytime begins.
Sunset: Time that daytime ends, and daytime
to nighttime transition begins.
End Twilight: Time that nighttime begins.

PDA: Mission Planning

available) or remove aircraft from your flight
(see below)

The Mission Planning window provides
detailed mission information and lets you
change your mission plan. This window is
divided into four parts: current mission line at
top (including mission buttons), mission map
in center, map tools around the mission map,
and window buttons at bottom.

Primary: Payload button—Displays the Payload window, where you can alter the loadouts of aircraft in your flight (see below)

Current mission line
The mission line displays all pertinent mission
information for the primary and, if attached,
the escort mission. You are always assigned to
either the primary or escort mission. If you are
assigned to the primary mission, the following
choices are available on the mission line:
Primary: # button—Displays the Mission Aircraft window, where you can add aircraft (if

Primary: Waypoints button—Displays the
Waypoints window, where you can alter your
mission waypoints (see below)
Escort :# button—Displays the Mission Aircraft window, where you can add aircraft (if
available) or remove aircraft from the attached
escort flight (see below)
If you are assigned to the escort mission, the
following choices are available on the mission
line:
Escort: # button—Displays the Mission Aircraft window, where you can add aircraft (if

Chapter 3: Preflight Operations

available) or remove aircraft from your flight
(see below)
Escort: Payload button—Displays the Payload
window, where you can alter the loadouts of
the aircraft in your flight (see below)

Mission Aircraft window
The Mission Aircraft window contains two lists
of aircraft: a list of aircraft assigned to this mission (left) and a list of available or unassigned
aircraft that you can add to the mission
(right). This window has the following
options:

Remove button—Removes the bottom aircraft
from the Assigned aircraft list and adds it to
the bottom of the Unassigned aircraft list
Add button—Removes the bottom aircraft
from the Unassigned aircraft list and adds it to
the bottom of the Assigned aircraft list
Accept—Saves changes and closes the Mission
Aircraft window, returning you to the Mission
Planning window
Cancel—Deletes changes and closes the Mission Aircraft window, returning you to the
Mission Planning window

PDA: Mission Planning

Payload window
The Payload window allows you to set the payloads of each aircraft in your flight. It has the
following options:
Aircraft—This option in the upper left corner
of this window lets you pick which aircraft
you want to edit.
Suggested Fuel—Estimated amount of fuel
required to complete mission.
Fuel—Add or remove fuel from the selected
aircraft. The less fuel you take, the lighter and
more maneuverable the aircraft is, but make
sure you take enough fuel to make it home.
This value cannot drop below the Suggested
Fuel value.
Weapons—Weight in pounds of all weapons
currently on the aircraft.

Margin—Remaining weight that can be carried on the aircraft.
All Up—Maximum possible weight of the
aircraft.
Balance—This is the weight balance of the aircraft. If it is unbalanced, Right or Left is displayed with the number of foot pounds that
must be removed to balance the aircraft. Look
at the loadout to ensure that you have the
same weapons on each side of the aircraft.
NOTE: Aircraft that are not balanced exhibit

strange handling/flying characteristics.
Drag—This is the drag count of the external
ordinance on your aircraft.The higher the
number, the lower your acceleration, top
speed, and maneuverability.
Maximum G—This is the maximum suggested
G-load (related directly to aircraft perfor-

Chapter 3: Preflight Operations

mance) of the aircraft with the current payload
configuration.
Current Stealth—This is the aircraft stealth
rating (100 percent is best) with the current
payload configuration.
Hardpoint/Weapon buttons—Click the intersections of weapon lines and hardpoint lines
to load the indicated ordinance on the hard
point. At the far right of each weapon line is
the number of that weapon type remaining in
your arsenal.
Accept—Saves changes and closes the Payload
window and returns you to the Mission Planning window.
Load Default—Loads the default mission payload on the selected aircraft, erasing its current
payload.
Apply to all Aircraft in Flight—Loads the current payload on each aircraft in the flight.
Cancel—Deletes changes and closes the Payload window, returning you to the Mission
Planning window.

Waypoint window
The Waypoint window allows you to review
and edit waypoint information for your current mission. It has the following options:

Y—This is the UTM Y coordinate in meters for
the currently selected waypoint. It is editable
for navigation and patrol waypoints only.
Action—This is the desired action for the currently selected waypoint. It is editable for navigation and patrol waypoints only.
Formation—This is the formation used from
the currently selected waypoint to the next
waypoint.
Altitude—This is the barometric altitude (altitude above mean sea level or MSL) used from
the currently selected waypoint to the next
waypoint.
Speed—This is the speed used from the currently selected waypoint to the next waypoint.
Accept—Saves changes, closes the Waypoint
window, and returns you to the Mission Planning window.
Load Default—Loads the default mission waypoints, erasing the current waypoints.
Insert Waypoint—Creates a new Navigation
waypoint with the same altitude, speed, and
formation as the current waypoint, located
half way between the current waypoint and the
next waypoint.

ID—Step through the mission waypoints.

Delete Waypoint—Deletes the current waypoint. This option is only available for Navigation and Patrol waypoints.

Zone—This is the UTM Zone of the currently
selected waypoint. It is editable for navigation
and patrol waypoints only.

Cancel—Deletes changes, closes the Waypoints window, and returns you to the Mission
Planning window.

X—This is the UTM X coordinate in meters for
the currently selected waypoint. It is editable
for navigation and patrol waypoints only.

NOTE: In addition to moving waypoints by

manually entering coordinates, you can click

PDA: Mission Planning

and drag navigation and patrol waypoints on
the mission planning map.

Waypoints
Waypoints are points along your mission
flight path that correspond to changes of
direction and possibly in your activity, which
includes speed, altitude, and current mission
task (for example, prepare to bomb target,
bomb target, patrol, navigate, etc.). Mission
waypoints include the following points:
Start (S) —Each mission begins with your aircraft at the start waypoint. Take off and fly
toward your next waypoint.
Navigation (N) —Navigation waypoints indicate changes of direction, altitude, and speed
and indicate that you should not engage enemies unless forced to do so.
Patrol (P) —Patrol waypoints indicate
changes of direction, altitude, and speed and
indicate that you can engage “targets of opportunity” along your waypoint path.
Initial Point (IP) —The initial point is the
waypoint at which you begin a bombing run
on your ground mission target. You should
switch your systems to modes that let you perform ground attacks and begin scanning for
your mission targets.
Target (T) —The target waypoint lies directly
over your mission target for air-to-ground
missions.
Rendezvous (R) —The rendezvous waypoint
is only available for escort missions and corresponds to the point at which you meet the
flight you are escorting. Be sure you make it to
this point on time, or you’ll miss the flight you
are supposed to escort because it won’t wait
for you; the flight has a mission of its own.
CAP (C) —The CAP waypoint is the point
from which you begin patrolling between the

CAP1 and CAP2 points and engaging all
enemy aircraft encountered. Fly between
CAP1 and CAP2 as long as fuel and ord (ordinance) permit and defend the area from all
enemy aircraft.
CAP1 (C1) —CAP1 is the first leg of the CAP
circuit. From here, fly to the CAP2 point to
continue the CAP circuit as long as fuel and
ord (ordinance) permit, at which point you
should fly to the next waypoint after CAP2.
CAP2 (C2) —CAP2 is the second leg of the
CAP circuit. From here fly to the CAP1 point
to continue the CAP circuit as long as fuel and
ordinance permit, at which point you should
fly to the next waypoint after CAP2.
Landing (L) —The landing waypoint is always
the last mission waypoint and is located
roughly over the center of your airfield. When
you’re within about 20 miles of your landing
waypoint activate your ILS (/ key), and your
waypoint list is replaced by four landing
points:
Navigation (N) —Placed directly under
your aircraft, a Navigation point is the
starting point for the landing process (see
“Taking off and landing” on page 92).
Outer Marker (OM) —An outer marker
point is approximately 10 miles from the
Touchdown Point (TP) and is lined up
with the runway.
Middle Marker (OM) —The inner marker
point is approximately five miles from the
touchdown point (TP) and is lined up
with the runway. It also indicates the
points at which you should start your
descent.
Touchdown Point (TP) —The touchdown point is the point at which you
land your aircraft on the runway.

Chapter 3: Preflight Operations

Aircraft formations
All aircraft in iF-22 Raptor, including you and
your flight, operate in formations. A formation
is a layout of aircraft positions relative to the
flight leader that allows multiple aircraft to
operate together with a high degree of order.
Each formation has strengths and weaknesses
and is only appropriate in certain situations.
The following subsections explain the available formations in iF-22 Raptor.

Trail formation
This formation is always used
during approach and landing
procedures.

Normal formations
Normal formations are “casual” or lazy formations that can be used at almost any point in a
flight.

Wedge formation

Echelon Right
formation

Fighting Wing formation
This formation is a very loose right
echelon formation.

Echelon Left
formation

PDA: Mission Planning

Radar-Defeating formations
The following formations defeat or fool
enemy radar by having the aircraft in the flight
fly extremely close together so that they
appear as a single radar target. Each formation
is also oriented in a specific direction—by
choosing a formation oriented toward the
enemy radar, the first aircraft can effectively
“mask” or hide the rest of the formation
behind it

dow buttons to manipulate the map and display different mission related features.

Map tools
Map Tools allow you to display many types of
mission-specific data on the Mission map.
Located above, below, and to the right of the
mission map, the tools are as follows:
North Arrow—This arrow designates the orientation of north for the map.
Map Scroll Arrows—These arrows scroll the
map in the four cardinal directions. In the center of the arrows is the current zoom level of
the map.

Vic formation

Labels—Displays the theater objective names
if the objectives icons are turned on.
Objectives—Displays the theater objective
icons on the map: blue are held by friendly
forces, green are contested or neutral, and red
are held by enemy forces.

Ladder formation

FEBA—Displays the Forward Edge of the Battle Area (FEBA) or front line on the map: blue
is friendly side, and red is enemy side.
Airfields—Displays the airfield icons on the
map: blue is friendly, green is contested or
neutral, and red is enemy.

H Stack
formation

Mission map
The mission map is a zoomable map of the
entire theater of operations, such as the
Ukraine. It consists of many small-scale satellite photographs put together to make a single
large-scale map. Use the Map Tools and win-

Flight WP—Displays your flight’s mission
waypoints on the map and labels them
according to their ID numbers; squares are initial points or bomb run points, triangles are
target points, and stars represent all other
waypoint types.
Other WP—Displays attached flight’s mission
waypoints (if available) on the map and labels
them alphabetically according to their ID
numbers (A = 1, B = 2, etc.); squares are initial
points or bomb run points, triangles are target
points, and stars represent all other waypoint
types.

Chapter 3: Preflight Operations

Alt—The above ground level (AGL) altitude at
which SAM, AAA, and EWR ranges are displayed. Because every ground-to-air system has
a range, you can minimize their detection
ranges of you by increasing your altitude. For
short-range systems, you can even eliminate
their detection range altogether by flying
above their maximum range. We suggest that
you set this to 30,000 ft. or above—at that
level, most short- and medium-range SAMs are
unable to detect your stealthy aircraft.

SAM—Displays blue and red SAM unit icons
on the map.

RCS—The radar cross-section or radar visibility applied to each SAM, AAA, and EWR range.
The maximum detection range of all groundto-air systems assumes a certain RCS, which
the F-22 is always far below. Use this tool to
represent your RCS or the RCS of aircraft you
are escorting to determine the detection ranges
of ground-to-air threats you’ll encounter. We
suggest that you set this to the F-22 with External Stores (F-22 ES) or F-15 setting to allow
you to plan for the worse RCS your aircraft can
exhibit. The choices are F-22 FS (full stealth),
F-22 ES (external stores), F-15, and C-17.

EWR Rg—Displays blue and red early warning
radar facility ranges on the map.

Armor—Displays blue and red armor unit
icons on the map.

Zoom In—Zooms the map to 2x resolution

Inf—Displays blue and red infantry unit icons
on the map.
Arty—Displays blue and red artillery unit
icons on the map.

SAM Rg—Displays blue and red SAM unit
ranges on the map.
Supp—Displays blue and red support unit
icons on the map.
AWACS—Displays blue and red AWACS patrol
routes on the map.
CAP—Displays blue and red CAP patrol routes
on the map.

Window buttons
The window buttons at the bottom of the map
perform general map and game functions as
follows:
Takeoff—Accepts the current mission plan
and begins the mission
Fit Map—Centers the map on your mission
waypoints
Zoom Out—Unzooms the map to 1x resolution
Grid On/Off—Toggles a 10-kilometer-by-10
kilometer grid overlay on the map

AAA—Displays blue and red AAA unit icons
on the map.

Info On/Off—Toggles the display of the UTM
coordinates of your mouse and other information on the chat line

AAA Rg—Displays blue and red AAA unit
ranges on the map.

Cancel—Deletes changes and returns you to
the Mission Selection window

PDA: Multiplayer Setup

PDA: Multiplayer Setup
When you start a multiplayer session from the
Ready Room, the Multiplayer Setup window is
displayed. This window lists all possible services or communication options presently
available to your computer. The services are
presented in the center of the window, with
the top service selected. To select another service, click on your choice. The Multiplayer
Setup window has the following options:
Services—Select the connection service you
want from the Services list
Accept—Begin the connection process using
the specified connection and appropriate
Direct Play connection windows
Cancel—Exit the multiplayer session and
return to the Ready Room

Chapter 3: Preflight Operations

PDA: Network Setup

Number of Players—Specifies the maximum
number of players allowed for your session if
you choose the Create Session button.

After you have successfully made a multiplayer
connection, the Network Setup window is displayed, where you can create a new session or
join an existing session. This window has the
following options:

Callsign—Specifies your callsign for multiplayer sessions.

Sessions—Lists all of the current iF-22 Raptor
sessions currently running for the given connection type.

Search for Callsign—Type another player’s
callsign here and select the Search button.

Session Name—Specifies the name of your
session if you select the Create Session
button.
Session Type—Specifies your session type
(dogfight, capture the flag, or cooperative) if
you select the Create Session button.

Players—Lists the callsigns of the players in
the currently selected session.

Search—Searches all sessions on the current
connection type for a player using that callsign. If the player is found, the session containing that player is selected in the Sessions
list.
Create Session—Creates a new session using
the Session Name, Session Type, and Number
of Players settings and displays the Session
Setup screen.

PDA: Session Setup

Refresh—Refreshes the screen and scans the
network for new sessions.
Join Session—Joins the currently selected session in the Sessions list and takes you to the
Session Setup screen.
Cancel—Exits the Network Setup screen and
returns you to the Multiplayer Setup screen.

PDA: Session Setup
There are two ways to reach the Session Setup
window: as session creator or as a session participant. To get to this window as a session creator, select the Create Session option on the
Network Setup window. To be a participant,
select the Join Session option on the Network
Setup window. The options on this window
vary according to your status:
Session Name—Specifies the name of session.

Session Type—Specifies the type of session.
Session Creator—Specifies the callsign of the
player who created the session.
Theater—Specifies the theater or terrain set of
the session; available to the session creator
only.
Winning Score— This option is available for
Dogfight sessions and specifies the number of
kills one player must get in order to win the
game and end the session; available to the session creator only.
Enemy Difficulty Level—Specifies the enemy
skill level for the session; available to the session creator only.
Player List—Each player has access only to his
own status:
Position— This is the allegiance of the
player and his position relative to everyone

Chapter 3: Preflight Operations

on his side, such as Blue Leader and Blue
Wingman 2.
Player— This is the callsign of the player
currently in this position.
Status— This is the status of this player,
Ready or Waiting, which can be changed by
clicking in the box to the left of the player’s
position.
Allow Editing of Preferences—Available to
the session creator only, this option lets the
session creator “lock down” the following
preferences for every player in the session or
allow each player to set his own settings:
Flight Model—Specifies the flight model
you use in this session.
Payload—In Dogfight sessions, this specifies the payload you use in this session.
No Collisions with Objects—Turns off
collisions between objects other than
weapons and the ground.
No Crashes with Ground—Turns off collisions with the ground. Your aircraft will
bounce off the ground if you crash.
Invulnerable to Weapons—Your F-22 cannot be damaged.

Unlimited Ammunition—Gives your F-22
unlimited ammunition.
Unlimited Fuel—Gives your F-22 unlimited fuel.
No Blackouts or Redouts—You will not
black out or red out when performing
severe maneuvers. In addition, you will not
suffer from whiteouts when looking at or
toward the sun.
Begin Mission—Shows how the aircraft
begins the scenario: in the air or on the
runway.
Difficulty Level—This is how hard the multiplayer portion of the simulation—cooperative
single mission, head-to-head dogfight, or
head-to-head capture the flag—is based on
your current settings, with 100 percent being
the hardest and 0 percent being the easiest.
Accept— Accept the current options and
begins the session; only available if every
player has a status of Ready.
Cancel—Cancels the network session if you
are the session creator or leaves the current session if you are a session participant, and displays the Network Session window.

PDA: Save

Old Information, Location—Preflight window where pilot was last saved

Go to the Save window by selecting the Save
button while in one of the following
windows:

Old Information, Description—Playerdefined description of the last saved simulation

•
•
•
•
•
•

To save your simulation, type a description
under New Information that identifies your
save state. This description is also used to
describe the set of generated missions should
you choose to save them. Use the following
options to save your simulation:

Ready Room
Theater Selection
Campaign Update
Mission Selection
Mission Planning
Debriefing

When you display the Save window, you get
information describing the last saved simulation for the current pilot and a number of
options for saving your current simulation, a
set of generated missions, or both. The last
saved simulation, Old Information, is
described as follows:

Save Simulation—Allows you to save the current simulation and update your pilot file.
Save Mission Set— Allows you to save the
generated mission set to the custom mission
set list on the Mission Selection window. This
option does not update your pilot file.

Chapter 3: Preflight Operations

New Information, Location—Preflight window from which you activated the Save
window.
New Information, Description—Type in a
description for your current save simulation or
custom mission setup.

Save Preferences, Use More Disk Space
(faster load time)—Creates a save file requiring more disk space, which loads faster than
the small file.

Save Preferences, Overwrite Last Save—Overwrites the save file described under Old Information with the current save file.

Save Preferences, Use Less Disk Space
(slower load time)—Creates a save file requiring less disk space, which loads slower due to
the mission set being regenerated from
scratch.

Save Preferences, Create New Save—Creates a
new save file.

Accept— Save the current simulation with the
parameters above and exit the Save window.
Cancel—Exit the Save window without saving.

Flight Operations

Aircraft Systems
Flight Controls
You can fly your plane by using any combination of controls on the keyboard, joystick,
throttle, and rudder pedals. Here’s a list of aircraft controls by control device:

Keyboard
Pitch up

Down arrow

Pitch down

Up arrow

Roll right

Right arrow

Roll left

Left arrow

Rudder right

Rudder left

10% throttle increase

10% throttle decrease

Set throttle 10%

Set throttle 20%

Set throttle 30%

Set throttle 40%

Set throttle 50%

Set throttle 60%

Set throttle 70%

Set throttle 80%

Set throttle 90%

Set throttle 100%

Afterburner on/off

* key on keypad

Two-Button joystick
Pitch up

Pull back

Pitch down

Push forward

Roll right

Push right

Roll left

Push left

Fire selected weapon

Button 1 (trigger)

Select next weapon

Button 2

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

Four-Button joystick with hat
switch

Rudder pedals
Right rudder

Push right pedal

Left rudder

Push left pedal

Pitch up

Pull back

Pitch down

Push forward

Roll right

Push right

Flight Models

Roll left

Push left

Fire gun

Button 1 (trigger)

Fire selected weapon

Button 2

Select next weapon

Button 3

Arm selected weapon

Button 4

Snap view top

Hat up

Snap view rear

Hat down

Snap view right

Hat right

To allow both experts and novices to play
iF-22 Raptor, we have included two flight models: a Relaxed realism model and a Realistic
model. iF-22 Raptor’s realistic flight model
presents a state-of-the-art six-degree freedom
of motion model. To compensate for the
F-22’s inherent instability, the flight model
includes a three axis digital-flight-control system. Finally, it includes a detailed engine/
thrust model incorporating thrust vectoring.
The key to flying this flight model is controlling your AoA and not having it control you!

Snap view left

Hat left

Snap view front

Hat center

Programmable joystick
See loading instructions for your joystick
located in the Readme.txt file and the joystick
function files included with the simulation.

Throttle

The Relaxed realism flight model is a much
simpler model that allows you to concentrate
on things other than flying. This flight model
includes reduced fuel flows, an automatic AoA
limiter that constantly tries to reduce your AoA
to 0, and performs almost instantaneous
responses to you control inputs. So, if your
more interested in blowing things up and
looking around than in super-realistic, hardcore flying, this is the flight model for you.

Increase throttle

Push forward

Angle-of-Attack limiter

Decrease throttle

Pull back

The F-22 is a highly unstable aircraft with
many computer programs and controls to aid
the pilot in maintaining control of the aircraft.
One of these controls is an angle-of-attack
(AoA) limiter. Since iF-22 Raptor’s realistic
flight model simulates the real F-22, you also
have an AoA limiter available. Press Alt-A to
toggle your AoA limiter on and off. While on,
your aircraft is limited to a maximum AoA of
approximately 12º, and an “L” is displayed
after your AoA readout in the HUD (see

Programmable throttle
See loading instructions for your throttle and
the located in the Readme.txt file and the
throttle function files included with the simulation.

Aircraft Systems

“Heads-Up Display” on page 63).Without the
AoA limiter, your aircraft is capable of more
than 90 degrees AoA, which presents some
interesting flying.

Autopilots
Most (if not all) modern aircraft are equipped
with an autopilot—a computer program capable of flying the aircraft. The autopilot in iF-22
Raptor is a computer pilot that flies your waypoint list at the speeds and altitudes specified
by each waypoint (A key).
To disengage autopilot, press the A key or
move any of your flight control devices (joystick, throttle, rudders, or keyboard). The
autopilot does not perform any functions
other than basic flight of your aircraft. It does
not engage enemy aircraft, bomb ground targets, or take evasive maneuvers to avoid
enemy missiles.

Accelerated time
To speed though routine portions of missions,
activate iF-22 Raptor’s accelerated time feature.
You can accelerate time up to eight times the
normal rate by pressing the Tab key from one
to four times (1x, 2x, 4x, 8x). Press Shift-Tab
to decelerate time (8x, 4x, 2x, 1x). To instantly
return to normal time (1x acceleration), press
Ctrl-Tab or the \ key (backslash).

Remember to keep a close eye on your MFDs
and HUD while using accelerated time. Events
can happen very quickly at 8x normal time.
iF-22 Raptor automatically switches to normal
time when a missile is launched at your aircraft, so you’ll have time to take evasive
actions.

Sensors
Sensors onboard the F-22 include active and
passive radar, an IFDL (In Flight Data Link)
system, and an automatic IFF (Identify Friend
or Foe) system. It is very important to understand that the MFD radar displays show integrated data from all available data sources.
This means that if your active radar is off and
your passive radar is destroyed, you may still
see objects on your radar-related MFDs—the
F-22’s avionics package processes sensor data
from current air and ground IFDLs. To detect
and engage targets, it may not be necessary to
have your active radar on and give yourself
away to any enemies you scan or “paint.”

Active radar
The active radar system projects radar energy
from the nose (up to 70 degrees off either side
of the nose) of the aircraft and then records
the energy that bounces off objects and
returns to the F-22. To toggle your active radar
on and off, press the R key.

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

The F-22’s maximum radar range is 120 miles.
Your maximum radar range represents the farthest range at which your radar signal can
travel, strike an object, and bounce back to
your aircraft with enough energy to be useful.
This means that your radar signal can actually
hit a target at twice its maximum range with
enough energy to alert the target that it has
been struck, but it then lacks sufficient energy
to return back to your aircraft. Since all aircraft
use passive radar sensors to alert them to
enemy radars, you should minimize the use of
your radar. To decrease your radar’s range,
press the [ key (open bracket); to increase it,
press the ] key (close bracket).
The radar on the F-22 is primarily an air
search-and-track radar. However, it can distinguish ground objects such as buildings and
vehicles up to 25 miles in front of your aircraft.
Finally, your radar-related displays constantly
show aircraft and buildings within five miles
of your aircraft to simulate that you, the pilot,
and all of your wingmen are always searching
the skies for targets. Because it’s more difficult
to do this in a simulator than in the actual aircraft, we have made this adjustment.

Passive radar
Passive radar works not by sending out radar
energy but by collecting and processing all
radar energy that is directed at the F-22. This
system is extremely useful to a stealthy plane
because it lets you know when other planes,
SAM/AAA sites, and radar sites are looking in
your direction with their radar. You can detect
radar-emitting objects at twice the distance
they can detect you because they have to emit
enough enough so that the signal can bounce
back to them. Outside their maximum range,
you can detect their radar emissions, but they
do not get a return signal.

Your passive radar sensors operate constantly
unless they are damaged.

IFDL pseudosensor
Your IFDL system can be thought of as both a
communications and sensor system. All planes
linked by IFDLs share their sensor data. This
means that an AWACS IFDL transmits the locations of all friendly and enemy aircraft it can
see to the F-22. The AWACS, through direct
links to Rivet Joint and JSTARs, also transmits
the locations of all ground units and buildings
within 25 miles of your F-22. Therefore, your
IFDL is probably your most useful sensor for
stealth. Because your plane’s avionics package
integrates sensor data from all sources into
one set of data, you can target and get information on objects that your plane couldn’t
possibly see. For that reason the IFDL is called
a pseudosensor.

Laser designator
The F-22 does not have laser targeting capabilities. However, the F-22 can carry laser-guided
munitions, such as a GBU-16B Paveway, by
using a forward air controller (FAC) to designate the target for the bombs. Without a FAC
designating a target, a laser-guided bomb falls
exactly like a unguided iron bomb, such as the
Mk83. FACs are only available on Close Air
Support (CAS) missions, so you should use
only laser-guided munitions while flying CAS.
To use laser-guided bombs, select a CAS mission on the mission selection screen. Fly
within 25 miles of your target, contact the FAC
using your UHF radio (U key), and let the FAC
know that you’re in the area and ready to drop
your ordinance by requesting an IFDL. After
replying, the FAC uses a laser designator to
guide your bombs to the targets you specify.
All you need to do is drop your bombs so that
they can be steered to their intended target, so
wait for your “DROP” cue, and let ’em have it!

Aircraft Systems

IFF check

If you hear a buzzing sound, your current target is a friendly aircraft. If you hear nothing,
then your target is an enemy.

quency-dependent. To initiate a UHF message,
first ensure that your radio is on by either
looking at the Communications/Navigation
MFD Mode or the Com1/UHF Frequency setting on the HUD controller, which should be
on (lighted). If your UHF radio is off, press the
Y key to turn it on. To initiate an UHF message, press the U key, the appropriate menu
item, or appropriate MFD button and follow
the instructions in “Chat line” on page 19. The
only recipients available for IFDL messages are
those who are on the same UHF frequency as
you. Scripted messages transmitted on this
channel are audio and text messages, while
user-typed messages are text-only.

Communications

Frequency

In iF-22 Raptor, there are four types of
communications:

To change the UHF frequency, use the arrows
to the right and left of the frequency displayed
on the HUD controller. The range for UHF frequency is 225.0 through 400.0.

An Identify Friend or Foe (IFF) check is a
radar-related signal that goes out to an aircraft
that you currently have on a radar display. The
signal “interrogates” the target and determines
if it is a friend or a foe. Your avionics constantly updates your MFDs with IFF information, but in a heated dogfight, you may not be
able to look down at them. For this reason,
you can do a manual IFF check on your current target by pressing the I key.

UHF—both audio and text are received by
everyone on your current frequency
(see“UHF” on page 61)
IFDL— stealthy text-only communications are
received by everyone currently in your IFDL
list (see “IFDL” on page 61 and “IFDL list” on
page 62)
Guard channel—audio and text communications are received by everyone in the simulation and that should only be used for general
and emergency messages (see “Guard” on
page 62)
Chat messages—messages typed by the user
that are directed to other players (see “Chat”
on page 62)
For a complete list of pre-scripted communications messages, see Appendix C, “Prescripted Communication Messages.”

UHF
As stated earlier, the recipients of UHF (Ultra
High Frequency) communications are fre-

IFDL
In Flight Data Link (IFDL) is a stealthy communication system that lets the F-22 communicate with everyone in its IFDL list (described
in “IFDL list” on page 62). Certain types of
information are automatically communicated
between everyone in the IFDL list. The main
function of the IFDL is to collect and disseminate sensor information such as passive and
active radar information, which allows the
F-22 to operate in hostile territory without
using its own radar and broadcasting its location to everyone in range. The F-22 gathers all
information from everyone in the IFDL list
and displays it in MFDs as if the F-22 detected
it with its own radar.
Another use of IFDL is passive weapons
launch. If the F-22 is receiving target information from an AWACS, it can launch an
AIM-120 AMRAAM missile, which uses the
AWACS radar to track on the target. The result

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

is the F-22 only breaks its stealth by launching
the missile. The AWACS sends target location
update data to the missile until it becomes
active and uses its own radar to hit the target.
The target is usually completely surprised
because a missile appears on its tail with little
or no warning.
A final use for IFDL is a stealthy text-only communication. To send an IFDL message, press
the K key or the appropriate MFD button and
follow the instructions in the “Chat line” on
page 19. The only recipients available for IFDL
messages are those with which you have an
IFDL link. Scripted and user-typed messages
transmitted on this channel are text-only
messages.

IFDL list
You can find the IFDL list in the Communication/Navigation MFD Mode. IFDL links are
automatically made between your F-22 and
your wingmen. To make IFDL links with
AWACS and FACs, contact the AWACS or FAC
by using UHF or Guard channel and request
an IFDL link.

Guard
The Guard channel on your radio is monitored by all friendly aircraft and ground control units within the combat area. This channel
is used for general and emergency communications only. To initiate a Guard message, press
Ctrl-G or the appropriate MFD button and follow the instructions in “Chat line” on page 19.
Scripted messages transmitted on this channel
are audio and text messages, whereas usertyped messages are text-only.

Chat
Chat messages are user-typed messages that
can be sent to other players during a multiplayer simulation session. Only human players understand user-typed messages, so don’t

try to send them to the computer-controlled
wingman. To initiate a chat message, press
the ' key (single quote) or appropriate MFD
button and follow the instructions in “Chat
line” on page 19. Chat messages (and therefore the ' key) are disabled in single-player
sessions.

Navigation
iF-22 Raptor, like the real F-22, uses waypoints
to navigate around the battlefield during missions. Waypoints are points along your mission flight path that correspond to changes of
direction and possibly activity, which includes
speed, altitude, and current mission task. This
section addresses the use of waypoints during
flight and landing operations (see “PDA: Mission Planning” on page 43 for detailed
descriptions of each waypoint type).
Your primary display for waypoint information is the Tactical MFD mode (see “Tactical
mode” on page 75). In this display, you are
presented with a graphical representation of
your waypoints with lines connecting them
that show the exact paths you should fly. The
current waypoint (the waypoint you are flying
toward) is outlined in white. When you get
near your current waypoint, the next waypoint
in the list is automatically selected. You can
manually step forward through your waypoints by pressing the O key or step backward
through them by pressing Shift-O.
Your mission waypoints are displayed while
you are on the ground or in the air, unless you
turn your Instrument Landing System (ILS) by
using the / key (slash), in which case landing
points are displayed.
The Communications/Navigation MFD mode
displays a list of your waypoints (mission or
landing) and highlights the current waypoint.
At the bottom of the display is the recommended altitude in thousands of feet and

Aircraft Systems

speed in knots for this waypoint leg (see
“Communications/Navigation mode” on
page 81).
Your Heads-Up Display (HUD) Navigation
mode (see “Navigation mode” on page 65)
displays current waypoint information only. It
displays a waypoint “tadpole” that slides right
and left to indicate the direction to your current mission waypoint. The tadpole also
rotates to indicate the degrees right and left to
your current waypoint. While flying toward
your target waypoint, the tadpole is replaced
by an Azimuth Steering Cue.
Finally, the ILS HUD mode displays waypoints
similarly to the Navigation HUD mode, but it
also displays ILS “needles” when the ILS system is activated (see “ILS Mode” on page 71).
After you line up with the runway, fly the landing points until you reach the middle marker;
the ILS needles guide you down to the runway
by giving constant altitude and heading corrections. The waypoint tadpole does not work
when you are using landing points.

Fuel Consumption
Even with the exceptionally low drag characteristics of the F-22, its two engines, each
delivering over 35,000 lbs of thrust, consume
fuel. Your aircraft's maximum fuel capacity is
25,000 lbs, which lasts around three hours
under normal operating conditions. Since
most missions in iF-22 Raptor are an hour or
less in duration, you won't need a full tank or
“bag” of gas to complete them. Therefore you
should limit the amount of fuel you take,
because the lighter an aircraft is, the more
maneuverable it is.
Each mission in iF-22 Raptor has a recommended fuel amount on the Mission Planning
window under the Payload option. The recommended fuel estimate is prepared by calculating the required fuel to fly your current

waypoints at the specified speeds and altitudes, adding 2,000 lbs of fuel for takeoff and
landing operations, and then multiplying the
total fuel amount by 1.3 to give you extra fuel
for fighting. You can manually increase your
fuel load, but cannot reduce it below the recommended fuel amount.
Your aircraft burns fuel at around 8,000 lbs
per hour at moderate speeds and medium altitudes. As you fly lower and faster (full military
power or 100 percent engines without afterburners) the fuel consumption rises to around
12,000 lbs per hour. With afterburners on,
you burn fuel at the alarming rate of 36,000
lbs per hour. Needless to say, you should
avoid extended use of your afterburners. To
help manage your fuel during a mission, your
aircraft warns you when you have consumed
half of your fuel with an audio and text
“Bingo” message.
During missions, you may want to dump your
fuel to lighten your load. Press Ctrl-D to
begin dumping your fuel at a rate of 3,000 lbs
per minute. You can stop dumping fuel at any
time by pressing Ctrl-D again. Fuel dumping
automatically ceases when your remaining
fuel reaches 2,000 lbs.

Heads-Up Display
The Heads-Up Display (HUD) is a transparent
display device that gives a pilot critical information on the status of the aircraft. The HUD
is divided into two areas: the HUD controller
and the HUD glass or “the HUD.” The HUD
controller contains buttons and displays that
you use constantly, while the HUD glass has a
number of modes for different sets of information.
A simple automatic mode-changing routine is
built into the HUD. This routine attempts to
predict what HUD mode you want based on

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

key presses and buttons selections and works
as follows:

IFF Check (IC)—Performs an IFF check on
your current target.

Weapons mode—The HUD automatically
changes to Weapons mode when you prepare
a shoot list (S) or target the object nearest to
the center of your HUD (L).

Send Com1 (S1)—Initiates a Com1/UHF
communication. See “UHF” on page 61.

Navigation mode—The HUD automatically
changes to Navigation mode when you toggle
through your waypoint list (O or Shift-O).
ILS Mode—The HUD automatically changes
to ILS mode when you toggle your ILS system
on/off (/ key).

HUD controller
The HUD controller has a number of buttons
and one display area:
Soft buttons—Changes the HUD text/graphics color.

Send Com2 (S2)—Initiates a Com2/IFDL
communication. See “IFDL” on page 61.
Send Guard (SG)—Initiates a Guard communication. See “Guard” on page 62.
Com1 UHF frequency window—Current
UHF frequency. See “Frequency” on page 61.
Com1 UHF left arrows—Changes the UHF
frequency by +1 (up arrow) and -1 (down
arrow). See “Frequency” on page 61.
Com1 UHF right arrows—Changes the UHF
frequency by +0.1 (up arrow) and -0.1 (down
arrow). See “Frequency” on page 61.

Declutter (DC)—Toggle that removes (and
returns) a number of nonessential items from
the HUD display. See each HUD mode
description for specific items that are removed
by Declutter.
Weapons Mode (WM)—Changes the HUD to
display Weapons mode information. See
“Weapons mode” on page 68.
Navigation Mode (NM)—Changes the HUD
to display Navigation mode information. See
“Navigation mode” on page 65.
ILS Mode (IM)—Changes the HUD to display
ILS mode information. See“ILS Mode” on
page 71.

HUD controller

Aircraft Systems

Navigation mode
The Navigation HUD mode displays the following HUD information for flying your aircraft and navigating waypoints:
Heading indicator—Displays the compass
heading or direction of travel in degrees.
Pitch Ladder—Displays the pitch angle
between the fuselage (tail to nose) of your aircraft and the horizon. The pitch is read as the
angle to the right and left of the watermark
(see below). The climb and dive angle is read
as the angle to the right and left of the flight
path marker (see below).
Bank indicator—Displays the roll angle
between your wings and the horizon.
Iron Gun Cross—Displays where your gun
rounds hit at a range of 2,250 ft. if you are flying straight and level.
Flight Path
marker

Watermark—Indicates the direction of the
nose of your aircraft.
Flight Path marker—Indicates the true direction of flight, which is almost always different
from the watermark.
Waypoint tadpole—Displays the direction to
your next waypoint. The icon slides right and
left parallel to the pitch ladder to indicate
course corrections of up to 30 degrees. It also
rotates to indicate the actual course correction
of up to ±180 degrees.
Azimuth Steering Cue—Replaces the waypoint tadpole while your aircraft heads toward
your target waypoint and displays the direction to your target waypoint. It is represented
by a line perpendicular to horizon extending
the height of the HUD. The line slides right

Pitch
Heading indicator Ladder

Waypoint
tadpole

Watermark
Radar
Altimeter
Indicator

IAS
Mach
G load
AoA
Fuel

Altitude

Current
weapon

Navigation
info lines

Bank indicator

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

and left parallel to the pitch ladder to indicate
course corrections of up to 30 degrees.
Indicated Air Speed (IAS)—Your current indicated air speed in knots. The circle graphic
with a caret shows the indicated air speed tendency (increasing or decreasing).
Mach indicator—Your current indicated air
speed as measured against the speed of sound.
G Load indicator— The current G-load of
your aircraft.
Angle of Attack (AoA) indicator—The angular difference between the watermark (where
your nose is pointed) and the flight path
marker (current direction of flight). If you are
using the realistic flight model and the AoA
limiter is on, an “L” is displayed after the readout.
Remaining fuel—Remaining fuel in thousands of pounds.
Currently selected weapon—Your currently
selected weapon and the number of weapons
of that type remaining.
Current altitude—Your current barometric
altitude in feet (altitude measured from mean
sea level). The circle graphic with a caret indicates the altitude tendency (increasing or
decreasing). A small R indicates that you are
using the radar altimeter that measures your
altitude above the ground (this altimeter is not
stealthy), and a small L indicates you are using
the laser altimeter that measures altitude
above the ground (it does not function
through clouds).
To change your altimeter press Shift-A.
Armed indicator—Indicates that your current
weapon is armed. A “MARMED” indicator is
displayed in the upper left corner of the HUD
if the Master Arm switch is on, which means
that all weapons are automatically armed
when selected.

Afterburner indicator—Indicates that your
afterburners are activated; an “AB” indicator is
displayed immediately above the Indicated Air
Speed indicator.
Airbrake indicator—Indicates that your airbrake (differential rudder) is activated; a
“BRAKE” indicator is displayed immediately
above the Altitude indicator.
Wheel Brakes indicator—Indicates that your
wheel brakes are engaged; a “WBRAKE” indicator is displayed above the altitude indicator.
Flaps indicator—Indicates that your flaps are
extended; a “FLAPS1” or“FLAPS2” indicator is
displayed immediately above the Altitude
indicator.
Gear indicator—Indicates that your landing
gear are extended; a “GEAR” indicator is displayed immediately above the Altitude
indicator.
Bay Doors indicator—Indicates that your bay
doors are open; a “DOORS” indicator is displayed immediately above the Altitude
indicator.
ECM indicator—Indicates that your ECM gear
is on; an “ECM” indicator is displayed above
the IAS display.
Navigation Information Line 1—Current
waypoint number and type:
S

Start

Navigation

Patrol

Initial Point (Bomb
Run)

Target

CAP

CAP Leg 1

CAP Leg 2

Aircraft Systems

Rendezvous

Landing
Landing Points
OM

Outer Marker

Middle Marker

Touchdown Point

Bearing to waypoint in degrees off your nose
right (+) and left (-), and three-dimensional
distance to waypoint in miles.
Navigation Information Line 2—Time to
waypoint in minutes:seconds.
Navigation Information Line 3—Difference
between actual and scheduled time to target
(TOT) in minutes:seconds. For best mission
results, keep the Estimated TOT value at or
near 00:00.
When the HUD Declutter button is selected,
the following items disappear from this mode:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Iron Gun Cross
G Load indicator
AoA indicator
Remaining fuel
Currently selected weapon
Armed indicator
Airbrake indicator
Flaps indicator
Gear indicator
Navigation Information Line 2
Navigation Information Line 3

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

Weapons mode
The Weapons HUD mode displays information for flying your aircraft and attacking targets. Many of the items in this mode are the
same as in the Navigation mode (see “Navigation mode” on page 65). Other items in the
Weapons mode are as follows:
Air Weapon Effective Range indicator—Displays the maximum possible range (the top of
the bracket) and the effective range (the bar)
of your currently selected weapon. A filled dot
represents your current target to the left of the
display and slides up and down to indicate the
target’s range relative to your weapon’s range.
The right scale represents the maximum range
of your current target’s best air-to-air weapon.
Your aircraft is represented as a caret (<) to the
Radar Missile
Target icon

right of the scale, with the bar representing 50
percent of the target’s maximum range.
Ground Weapon Range Indicator—Displays
the maximum (top of bracket) and minimum
(bottom of bracket) effective range for your
currently selected air-to-ground weapon.
Above the bracket is the factory maximum
weapon range (dash) and below is the factory
minimum range. Above the factory maximum
weapon range is the range to target is miles.
To the left of the display is a filled dot representing your current target, which moves up
and down to show the range to target relative
to your weapon range.
Weapon Acquisition and Track Circle—Displays the view/track cone of your currently

Target
altitude

Aircraft
effective
range
Shoot
cue

Weapons acquisition
and track circle

Air/Ground
target info lines

Aircraft Systems

selected weapon with a filled dot representing
your current target.
Air/Ground Target Information Line 1—Aircraft type, mission target designator if applicable (*), and target or shoot list number: for
example, Mi-24 (*2).
Air/Ground Target Information Line 2—Target’s altitude in thousands of feet.
Air/Ground Target Information Line 3—
Bearing to target in degrees (right +, left -),
and the three-dimensional distance to target
in miles.
Air/Ground Target Information Line 4—Target’s true air speed in knots.
Air/Ground Target Information Line 5—
Velocity closure (VC) with target in knots.
Target icons—Targeted aircraft are represented
by triangular outlines. The current targeted aircraft is represented by a large triangle for radar
missiles, a large dashed triangle for guns, a
large circle for infrared-guided missiles, or a

large square for air-to-ground munitions; to
the right of each aircraft icon is the aircraft’s
altitude in thousands of feet. Other targets in
your shoot list are displayed as small triangles,
regardless of the weapon selected.
SHOOT cue—When the targeted aircraft is
within your effective weapon range and is
within your weapons acquisition and tracking
cone, the word “SHOOT” is displayed above
the bank indicator in the bottom of the HUD.
DROP cue—When the targeted ground object
is within your effective weapon range and is
within your weapons acquisition and tracking
circle (see “Tactical mode” on page 75), the
word “DROP” is displayed above the bank
indicator in the bottom of the HUD.
Gunsight—When your M61A2 20mm gun is
selected and armed, a Historical Lead Computing gunsight appears roughly in the center
of the HUD. The sight displays where your
bullets hit at 2,250 ft. away from your aircraft.
As your maneuver your aircraft, the gunsight

Ground
Weapon
Range
indicator

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

moves to display where your gun rounds will
hit.
When the HUD Declutter button is selected,
the following items disappear from this mode:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Waypoint tadpole
AoA indicator
Remaining fuel
Airbrake indicator
Flaps indicator
Gear indicator
Weapon Acquisition and Track Circle
Air/Ground Target Information Line 4
Air/Ground Target Information Line 5

Iron Gun Cross

Gunsight

Aircraft Systems

ILS Mode
Many of the items in the ILS HUD mode are
the same as in the Navigation mode (see
“Navigation mode” on page 65). Other items
in the ILS HUD mode are as follows:
Optimum Air Speed—This is the suggested
air speed for your position along the glide
path.
Optimum Altitude—This is the suggested altitude for your current position along the glide
path.
Vertical Glide Path indicator—This line
moves up and down in the HUD to indicate
that you are above or below the glide path for
an optimum landing; for an optimum landing

it should line up with the Horizontal Glide
Path Indicator in the center of the HUD.
Horizontal Glide Path indicator—This line
moves right and left in the HUD to indicate
that you are to the right or left of the glide
path for an optimum landing; for an optimum landing it should line up with the Vertical Glide Path Indicator in the center of the
HUD.
Vertical Velocity—This is your vertical velocity
in feet per second (- is losing altitude)
Optimum Vertical Velocity—This is the suggested vertical velocity for your current position along the glide path.

Optimal
vertical
velocity

Vertical
velocity
Optimum
air speed
Horizontal
glide path
indicator
Optimal
altitude

Vertical
glide path
indicator

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

When the HUD Declutter button is pressed the
following items disappear from this mode:

• Right—Stealth
• Bottom—Stores Management

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Set MFDs to Navigation modes—Page Up
key; sets MFDs to the following modes:

Iron Gun Cross
Waypoint tadpole
Optimum Air Speed
Mach indicator
G Load indicator
Currently selected weapon
Optimum Altitude
Navigation Information Line 2
Navigation Information Line 3

Multifunctional displays
The F-22 cockpit is dominated by four large
full-color multifunctional displays (MFDs).
The displays are referred to as the left, center,
right, and bottom MFDs. One of the four displays is always active and can be identified by a
white outline just inside the MFD. Here’s a list
of basic MFD options:
Select next MFD—N key
Select previous MFD—Shift-N
Next MFD mode—M key
Previous MFD mode—Shift-M
Increase MFD/radar range—] key
Decrease MFD/radar range—[ key
Set MFDs to Combat modes—Insert key; sets
MFDs to the following modes:
•
•
•
•

Left—Defense
Center—Tactical
Right—Attack
Bottom—Stores Management

Set MFDs to Status modes—Home key; sets
MFDs to the following modes:
• Left—Damage
• Center—Tactical

•
•
•
•

Left—Communications/Navigation
Center—Tactical
Right—Flight Ball
Bottom—Damage

Set MFDs to Dogfight modes—Delete key;
sets MFDs to the following modes:
•
•
•
•

Left—Tactical
Center—Dogfight
Right—Defense
Bottom—Stores Management

Set MFDs to Landing modes—End key; sets
MFDs set to the following modes:
•
•
•
•

Left—Tactical
Center—Flight Ball
Right—Communications/Navigation
Bottom—Damage

You can change the MFD modes associated
with the five preset MFD sets by using the Configure MFDs window (see “Configure MFDs”
on page 32).
Icons and targeting text within the MFDs are
color-coded based on their alliance or side of
the conflict:
• Red—Enemy
• Green—Friendly
• Blue—Wingmen
Some icons break the normal rules and
deserve special attention:
• White—Friendly missiles and missile track
lines
• Yellow—Non-civilian buildings (military
targets including EWRs)

Aircraft Systems

• Light blue—Civilian buildings (non-military targets)

Clicking on objects in your MFDs has the following effects:

There are several icons displayed in radarrelated MFD modes:

• On nontargeted object—Adds object to
your shoot list as the current target
• On a noncurrent target in your shoot list—
Makes that target the current target in your
shoot list
• On your current target—Removes target
from your shoot list

Aircraft—Filled circles with lines denoting the
direction of travel. The lines also indicate the
velocity class of the aircraft:
• Short—Less the Mach 1.0
• Medium—Between Mach 1.0 and 1.49
• Long—Mach 1.5 and greater
In Defense mode, hollow triangles are projected off the nose of enemy aircraft when they
search in your direction with active radar, indicating their detection range versus your aircraft’s current stealth state.

Right-clicking on an object in your MFDs displays crosshairs over the object and information about the object for five seconds in the
Tactical and Dogfight MFD modes and in the
HUD.

Ground vehicles—Filled circles without lines.
Radar SAM sites—In Defense mode, they
appear as hollow pentagons that change to
filled when the radar is on and facing your
direction. Each SAM site has a large hollow
circle denoting the SAM’s detection range versus your aircraft’s current stealth state. In other
MFD modes, they appear as small filed circles.
Buildings and structures—Filled circles.
Waypoints: Initial Point or Bomb Run—
Filled green squares.
Waypoints: Target—Filled green triangle.
Waypoints: All other types—Four pointed,
filled green stars.
Waypoint connecting lines—Green lines.
Missiles—Small filled circles with a line leading from the missile to its target
Current target—Displayed with a thick white
circle around it.
Other targets in your shoot list—Displayed
with thin white circles around them.
Wingman targets—Displayed with a dashed
white circle around them.

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

Defense mode
The Defense MFD mode is your primary way
of remaining alive and unseen. In the center of
the display is an F-22 icon representing your
aircraft with two lines indicating the search/
track angle of your radar. If you turn your radar
on, everyone within those two lines receives
your signal and is alerted to your presence. The
number at the top of the display is your current heading, and the two large circles represent ranges. This display shows all radar
contacts that are a threat to your F-22, with
threat being defined as physical threats and
threats to maintaining your stealth.
There are two displays at the bottom of the
MFD: remaining chaff and remaining flares.
The Defense MFD mode is the only display
that shows radar ranges of SAM sites and aircraft. As your RCS and IRCS increase, the radar
circles around SAM sites, and radar cones from

aircraft increase in size to reflect their detection ranges. Your best chance for remaining
unseen is to keep the small white dot inside
the F-22 icon outside of all enemy radar detection circles and cones.
There are two status indicators in the Defense
MFD mode: “ACT” indicates your active radar
is on, and “ECM” indicates your ECM is on.
Maximum display range for the Defense MFD
mode is 160 miles, while the minimum is five
miles. The following buttons are along the
edge of any display that contains the Defense
MFD mode:
CM

Set MFDs to Combat modes

Set MFDs to Status modes

Set MFDs to Communication/
Navigation modes

Aircraft Systems

Set MFDs to Dogfight modes

Set MFDs to Landing modes

Up arrow R Increase radar range
Down
arrow R

Decrease radar range

Up arrow
M

Previous MFD mode

Down
arrow M

Next MFD mode

Fire chaff

Fire flare

Toggle ECM

Auto dispense chaff and flare

Toggle active radar

Tactical mode
The Tactical MFD mode is your primary map
display and contains information on all
ground and air contacts, target information,
waypoint information, and heading information. The Tactical mode is also the primary display for delivering air-to-ground munitions.
The number at the top of the display is your
current heading, and the two circles represent
ranges. This display contains an F-22 icon that
is near the bottom of the display.
The target information display is identical to
the one on the HUD Weapons mode (see
“Weapons mode” on page 68).
When you have air-to-ground munitions
selected and armed, you see either a small
white dot and white circle indicating the possible impact points of the weapon. When your
currently selected ground target is under the

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

dot or circle, a “DROP” cue is shown at the
bottom of the display, indicating that your
weapon is likely to hit the target.

Prepare auto shoot list

Select next target

The ACT status indicator denotes that your
active radar is currently on.

Toggle autopilot

Toggle active radar

Your current weapon and the remaining number of that type of weapon are displayed in the
upper right corner of the display. Maximum
display range for the Tactical MFD mode is
160 miles, while the minimum is five miles.
The Tactical MFD mode has the following
buttons:
CM

Set MFDs to Combat modes

Set MFDs to Status modes

Set MFDs to Communication/Navigation modes

Set MFDs to Dogfight modes

Save MFDs to Landing
modes

Up arrow R

Increase radar range

Down arrow
R

Decrease radar range

Up arrow M

Previous MFD mode

Down arrow
M

Next MFD mode

Up arrow W

Previous waypoint

Down arrow
W

Next waypoint

Toggle display ground
objects

Toggle display air objects

Toggle display other items;
when selected, the FEBA
(green line) is not displayed

Toggle display waypoints

Aircraft Systems

Attack mode
The Attack MFD mode displays radar information for your currently selected weapon. If you
have an air-to-air missile selected, only air targets are displayed, while only ground targets
are shown for air-to-ground munitions. The
number at the top of the display is your current heading, and the two circles represent
ranges. This display contains an F-22 icon representing your aircraft near the bottom of the
display.
The altitude display (left) shows altitudes in
increments of ten thousand feet from 0 to
60,000 feet. Your aircraft is represented as a
white bracket to the right of the scale. Your
current target is represented as a red caret or
less than sign (<) with a red square. The
square is hollow until you fire at the target, in
which case it is filled completely red.

The Weapon Range Indicator (right) consists
of two side-by-side weapon range scales and
operates identically to the one in HUD Weapons mode (see “Weapons mode” on page 68).
The weapon acquisition and track circle (top
center) is only available for air-to-air weapons.
It operates identically to the one in HUD
Weapons mode (see “Weapons mode” on
page 68).
Your current weapon and the remaining number of that type of weapon are displayed in the
upper right corner of the display. Maximum
display range for the Attack MFD mode is 160
miles, while the minimum is five miles. The
Attack MFD mode has the following buttons:

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

Set MFDs to Combat modes

Set MFDs to Status modes

Set MFDs to Communication/Navigation modes

Toggle display weapon range
scale

Toggle arm weapon

Select next weapon

Set MFDs to Dogfight modes

Prepare auto shoot list

Set MFDs to Landing modes

Select next target

Up arrow R

Increase radar range

Toggle active radar

Down arrow
R

Decrease radar range

Up arrow M

Previous MFD mode

Down arrow
M

Next MFD mode

Toggle display altitude scale

Toggle display weapon aim
circle

Dogfight mode
The Dogfight MFD mode increases your situational awareness in close-up dogfights. The
radar in this mode shows all aircraft up to 10
miles from your aircraft, regardless of your
radar’s current status. The box at the top of the
display is your current heading, and the two
circles represent ranges. This display contains

Aircraft Systems

an F-22 icon representing your aircraft in the
center of the display.

Down arrow
M

Next MFD mode

Above each aircraft icon is a number and a
trend indicator:

Toggle display target information

Toggle arm weapon

Select next weapon

Prepare auto shoot list

Select next target

Number—Difference in altitude between target aircraft’s altitude and your altitude in thousands of feet. If it is positive, the target is above
you; a negative number indicates the target is
below you.
Trend indicator:
• A dash (–) indicates that the aircraft is neither climbing nor diving.
• An up arrow indicates that the aircraft is
climbing.
• A down arrow indicates that the aircraft is
diving.
The Dogfight mode shows target information
identical to the information displayed on the
HUD in Weapons mode (see “Weapons
mode” on page 68). Your current weapon and
the remaining number of that type of weapon
are displayed in the upper right corner of the
display.
Maximum display range for the Dogfight MFD
mode is ten miles, while the minimum is one
mile. The Dogfight MFD mode automatically
sets the display range according to your current target. This mode has the following
buttons:
CM

Set MFDs to Combat modes

Set MFDs to Status modes

Set MFDs to Communication/Navigation modes

Set MFDs to Dogfight modes

Save MFDs to Landing
modes

Up arrow M

Previous MFD mode

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

Stores Management mode
The Stores Management mode displays the
current status of your weapons, engines, and
countermeasures. At the top of the display are
engine thrust indicators that show information regarding each engine:

flares remaining. This mode has the following
buttons:
CM

Set MFDs to Combat modes

Set MFDs to Status modes

Set MFDs to Communication/Navigation modes

Current thrust indicator—“__” symbol and
number; “0–100” for military power and
“140” for afterburner

Set MFDs to Dogfight modes

Set MFDs to Landing modes

In the center of the display is a box showing
your currently selected weapon and its status,
which is “Ready” if the weapon is armed.

Up arrow M

Previous MFD mode

Down arrow
M

Next MFD mode

At the bottom of the display are three countermeasure displays. The first shows the number
of chaff packets remaining. The second display
shows the current dispensing method—Manual or Auto. The third shows the number of

Toggle bomb bay doors for
current weapon

Toggle arm weapon

Select next weapon

Current thrust setting—“>“ symbol

Aircraft Systems

Fire chaff

Fire flare

Toggle ECM

Auto dispense chaff and flare

highlighted in this list (see “Waypoints” on
page 47). The suggested speed in knots and
the suggested altitude in thousands of feet are
displayed for the current waypoint leg at the
bottom of the screen. This mode has the following buttons:

Communications/Navigation mode

Set MFDs to Combat modes

The Communications/Navigation MFD mode
contains detailed information on the status of
your communication systems and a list of
your mission waypoints. It lists:

Set MFDs to Status modes

Set MFDs to Communication/Navigation modes

• The status of COM1 and your current UHF
frequency
• Your current COM2/IFDL links

Set MFDs to Dogfight modes

Set MFDs to Landing modes

Up arrow M

Previous MFD mode

Down arrow
M

Next MFD mode

Up arrow W

Previous waypoint

This MFD mode displays a list of your mission
waypoints including waypoint number, UTM
zone, X coordinate, Y coordinate, and the waypoint action type. Your current waypoint is

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

Down arrow
W

Next waypoint

in the upper right corner. This mode has the
following buttons:

Toggle Com1/UHF

Set MFDs to Combat modes

Send Com1/UHF communication

Set MFDs to Status modes

Send Com2/IFDL communication

Set MFDs to Communication/Navigation modes

Set MFDs to Dogfight modes

Send Guard communication

Set MFDs to Landing modes

Flight Ball mode

Up arrow M

Previous MFD mode

The Flight Ball MFD mode is basically a
backup system for your HUD. It displays the
pitch ladder, IAS in knots, altitude in feet, ILS
information, remaining fuel in thousands of
pounds, and vertical velocity in feet per second

Down arrow
M

Next MFD mode

Toggle ILS

Toggle autopilot

S2
SG

Aircraft Systems

Damage mode
The Damage MFD mode displays F-22 systems
that have been damaged (yellow) or destroyed
(red). It also contains a graphic representation
of the F-22, which is color-coded according to
the total amount of damage sustained by the
aircraft. It provides quick feedback about your
F-22’s flight worthiness:
•
•
•
•
•
•

Blue: 0–20 percent damaged
Light Blue: 21–40 percent damaged
Yellow: 41–60 percent damaged
Orange: 61–80 percent damaged
Red: 81–90 percent damaged
Flashing Red: 91–100 percent damaged

Set MFDs to Communication/
Navigation modes

Set MFDs to Dogfight modes

Save MFDs to Landing modes

Up arrow M Previous MFD mode
Down
arrow M

Next MFD mode

This MFD mode has the following buttons:
CM

Set MFDs to Combat modes

Set MFDs to Status modes

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

Stealth Status mode
The Stealth Status MFD mode displays your
aircraft’s current stealth state, both Radar Cross
Section (RCS) and Infrared Cross Section
(IRCS). The two bar graphs expand and contract in sync with your aircraft’s stealth state.
The smaller the graphic, the stealthier your aircraft is. Above the graphics are all the items
that contribute to your RCS (blue) and IRCS
(red). This mode has the following buttons:
CM

Set MFDs to Combat
modes

Set MFDs to Status modes

Set MFDs to Communication/Navigation modes

Set MFDs to Dogfight
modes

Set MFDs to Landing
modes

Up arrow M

Previous MFD mode

Down arrow M

Next MFD mode

Instrument panels
The instrument panels are described in the following sections.

Aircraft Systems

LCD displays
There are three instrument areas of your aircraft. The first area is immediately above your
MFDs and contains four display instruments.
Looking from left to right, you have an UTM
coordinate indicator that displays your aircraft’s current location in the world by UTM
Zone:X coordinate in hundreds of meters:Y coordinate in hundreds of meters (DF:235:001).
The next instrument is your current barometric or above sea level altitude (Alt) in feet. The
third instrument is your True Air Speed or
“ground speed” in knots. The final instrument

is the current simulation Time in hours:minutes:seconds.

Bottom right panel
The bottom right instrument panel contains
the F-22’s critical switches. There are three
switches that have a safety cover to prevent
accidental activation: Master Arm, Fuel
Dump, and Jettison Stores (external only).
There are three states to each of these buttons:
cover down and off, cover up and off, and
cover up and on. To open or close the cover,
click on it, but remember that when the cover
is down, the switch is automatically shut off.

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

To flip any switch, click on it, or click on the
cover to shut the cover again.
The remaining two switches on this panel are
your right and left engine on/off switches.
Click on these switches to change their state.
Also in this view is the flight stick, which has
three buttons and two hat switches that have
two modes each:
Top thumb button

Fires your currently
selected weapon
(space bar)

Trigger

Fires your gun
(Shift-space bar)

Bottom thumb button Arms or de-arm your
currently selected
weapon (Backspace)
Left hat switch up

Selects your next
weapon (Enter)

Left hat switch down

Selects your previous weapon (ShiftEnter)

Right hat switch up

Fires a chaff packet
(C key)

Right hat switch down Drops a flare (F key)

Aircraft Systems

Bottom left panel
The bottom left instrument panel contains
takeoff/landing and general in-flight switches.
There are two three-position turn knobs. The
first knob is the Wheel Brake knob with Off,
On, and Park positions. The second knob is
the Land/Taxi Light knob with Off, On, and
Landing settings (this function is not implemented).
On the far right of the panel is the Landing
Gear lever with Extended and Retracted positions. When the landing gear is retracted, the
three landing gear lights are gray. When the
landing gears are extended, each gear light is
either green for functioning or red for malfunctioning.
The Flaps switch is either in the Extended or
Auto position. In the Auto position, the air-

craft’s flight control system automatically
manipulates the position of the flaps to keep
the F-22 in the air. The last switch on this control panel is the Air Brake switch. The F-22
does not have a standard air brake but uses
differential or opposite rudders to produce
drag that slows the aircraft. The air brakes are
either Extended (on) or Retracted.
Below the control panel is the throttle. The
long red button prepares a shoot list. The
small red button selects the next target in the
shoot list. The black thumb switch removes
the current target from the shoot list.

Weapon systems
The following sections explain weapon system
controls.

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

Weapon management
Weapons management includes selecting,
arming, and firing weapons from aircraft hardpoints. You can select weapons in a number of
ways:
Select next weapon or next weapon type—
Press Enter; click the select next weapon (WS)
button on the Dogfight, Attack, or Stores Management MFD modes; or flip the left hat
switch up on the flight stick in the down and
right view.
Select previous weapon—Press Shift-Enter or
flip the left hat switch down on the flight stick
in the down and right view.
When selected, weapons are automatically
unarmed unless the Master Arm switch is on.
You can arm or unarm weapons in a number
of ways:
Master arm toggle—Press Ctrl-A; double-click
on the Master Arm switch located on the right
instrument panel (see “Instrument panels” on
page 84).
Arm weapon toggle—Press Backspace; press
the Arm button on the Dogfight, Attack, or
Stores Management MFD modes; or the press
the lower thumb button on the flight stick in
the down and right view.

next to the current weapon instead of the
usual “ARMED”).
You can fire weapons in the following ways:
Fire gun—Press Shift-space bar or the trigger
button on the flight stick in the down and
right view.
Fire selected weapon—Press the space bar or
the upper thumb button on the flight stick in
the down and right view.
When you launch a weapon from an internal
weapons bay, there is a noticeable delay before
the weapon is released because of the operation of the bay doors and the weapon ejection
system. Expect a delay of approximately one
second before it leaves the weapons bay. Each
weapon is given its target upon launch, not
upon command to launch. Therefore, if you
press the button to launch a weapon at target
A, immediately switch to target B, and press
the launch button again, two weapons are
launched, and they track toward target B
because it was the active target when the weapons actually left the bays. The only exception
to this is the AIM-9 Sidewinder. It immediately
launches and tracks its target, but as mentioned previously, it has a one-second arming
delay.

When you arm an AIM-9 Sidewinder, there is
approximately a one-second delay before the
weapon is extended into the airstream to
search for targets because the F-22 has no
infrared search-and-track capabilities. During
this delay, you won’t see an “ARMED,”
“MARMED,” or “SHOOT” cue. Each time a
Sidewinder is readied, you get the same delay.

Weapon Launch G Limitations

After the current weapon is armed, you’ll see
“ARMED” or “MARMED” (Master Arm is on)
in the upper left corner of the HUD and in the
Tactical, Dogfight, Attack, or Stores Management MFD modes (a “Ready” cue is displayed

A shoot list is a computer-prepared list of targets based on your current weapon and potential targets. When the computer prepares a
shoot list, it looks at your currently selected
weapon and scans for appropriate targets (air,
ground, or ground-based radar, as with a

To launch a weapon, you must have sufficient
gravitational and/or centrifugal forces (Gs) on
your aircraft. To launch a bomb you must
have Gs between 0.5 and 6, while to launch a
missile your G limits are 0 to 8.

Shoot list

Aircraft Systems

HARM missile). Each potential target is prioritized according to distance away from your
aircraft and its angle off your nose. The computer then prepares a shoot list of up to x targets, where x is the number of weapons of the
currently selected type. The name of each target is followed by its shoot list number and
possibly an asterisk (*) if it is a mission target.
The current target in your shoot list is represented by a larger filled white circle behind the
target icon in your MFDs. The remaining targets in your shoot list are represented by hollow white circles behind the target icons.
There are dashed hollow white circles behind
shoot list targets of your wingmen.

Targeting
Here’s how you can select and deselect targets
in iF-22 Raptor:
Prepare a shoot list—Press the S key; select
the prepare shoot list button (SL) in the Tactical, Dogfight, or Attack MFD modes; or press
the long red button on the throttle in the
down and left view.
Select next target in shoot list—Press the T
key; select the next target button (NT) on the
Tactical, Dogfight, or Attack MFD modes; click
on any target in the Defense, Tactical, Dogfight, or Attack MFD modes; or select the small
red button on the throttle in the down and left
view.
Select previous target in shoot list—Press
Shift-T or click on any target in the Defense,
Tactical, Dogfight, or Attack MFD modes.
Deselect current target—Press Shift-D; click
on the current target in the Defense, Tactical,
Dogfight, or Attack MFD modes; or press the
black thumb switch on the throttle in the
down and left view.

Selecting targets using your mouse—Click
on any object in your MFDs and one of the
following events occurs:
• If the target in not in your shoot list, it
becomes the current target in your shoot
list.
• If it is in your shoot list but is not the current target, it becomes the current target.
• If it is the current target in your shoot list,
it is untargeted and removed from your
shoot list.
NOTE: If you click on a ground object icon,

a shoot list is prepared with all the vehicles
or buildings associated with the group of
ground objects.
Select target nearest to the center of your
HUD—The L key locks onto the nearest target
of the type designated by your current
weapon.
Getting information on targets using your
mouse—Right-clicking on any object in the
Defense, Tactical, Dogfight, or Attack MFD
modes displays crosshairs and target-related
information around the target for five seconds.

Maintaining target lock
Selected targets remain in your shoot list as
long as you maintain radar contact with them.
Maintaining radar contact simply means that
you can see them in your MFDs, so it could be
that your radar is off, but your wingman’s
radar is on and you have an IFDL with the
wingman that lets you see the bogey (enemy
aircraft). Try to keep all targets in front of you
so either you or your wingman’s radar can
maintain contact.

Countermeasures
F-22 countermeasures, which operate similar
to those of other aircraft, are as follows:

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

Fire flare— Press the F key; select the Flare
button on the Defense or Stores Management
MFD modes; or the flip the right hat down on
the flight stick in the down and right view.
Fire chaff—Press the C key; select the Chaff
button the Defense or Stores Management
MFD modes; or the flip the right hat up on the
flight stick in the down and right view.

Snap view left and level—Press 1 on the keypad.
Snap view top—Press 7 or 9 on the keypad.
Right 45 degrees— Press 6 on the keypad.
Left 45 degrees—Press 4 on the keypad.
Up 45 degrees—Press 8 on the keypad.
Down 45 degrees— Press 2 on the keypad.

ECM on/off toggle—Press the E key, or select
the Flare button on the Defense or Stores
Management MFD modes.

Toggle between Padlock and Front view—
Press . on the keypad or Del.

Auto launch chaff and flares—Press the V key,
or select the Auto Chaff/Flare button on the
Defense MFD mode.

Cockpit graphics on/off—Press F2.

Padlock view—Press F3.

The internal and external views are described
in the following sections.

You can also change internal views by clicking
your mouse when a transparent view arrow is
displayed on the window. To display the view
arrows, move your cursor toward the edges of
the window, avoiding active cockpit elements
such as buttons and MFDs.

Internal

External

There are 20 internal views, not including the
Padlock view, which cycles through the available views while keeping a lock on your current target. The internal view system is based
on fixed views that change in 45 degree increments in the horizontal and vertical plane.
Accordingly, there are eight views on the horizontal or eye level plane, eight views on the up
45 degree plane, a top view (up 90 degrees),
and three down 45 degree cockpit views. F-22
also lets you to snap your view instantly to five
critical internal views. To change your current
view, use the following commands:

In iF-22 Raptor, there are seven external views,
which are accessed as follows:

View systems

Snap view front and level—Press 5 on the
keypad or F1.
Snap view rear and level—Press 0 on the keypad.
Snap view right and level—Press 3 on the
keypad.

Player Chase view—Press F4.
Target Chase view—Press F5; not available
until range is less than 40 miles.
Missile/Bomb view— Press F6.
Tactical view— Press F7 (looking from your
aircraft to the target aircraft).
Reverse tactical view— Press F8 (looking from
the target aircraft to your aircraft); not available until range is less than 40 miles.
Fly-By view—Press F9 (looking head-on at
F-22 changing to tail-on as F-22 flies past the
camera).
Down view—Press F10 (looking directly out
of the bottom of the bomb bay).
Satellite view—Press F11 (looking from 1,000
feet above your aircraft).

Aircraft damage

You can manipulate any external view, such as
zooming and rotating your viewing angle, by
using the following keys:
Zoom view—Press . key or Ctrl-..
Unzoom view— Press , key or Ctrl-,.
Rotate view up— Press Ctrl-Up Arrow.
Rotate view down— Press Ctrl-Down Arrow.
Rotate view right— Press Ctrl-Right Arrow.
Rotate view left— Press Ctrl-Left Arrow.

Toggling views with the view
function keys (F1 and F3 through
F11)
The view function keys are unique because
they act as a toggle to your previous view. The
first time you hit a key, it switches your view to
the requested view. For example, you switch
from the Front Cockpit view (keypad 5 or F1)
to Player Chase view by pressing F4. If you
press F4 again, the view toggles back to the
Front Cockpit view. Press it again, and you’re
back in the Player Chase view. You can toggle
this feature on and off by pressing Ctrl-F1.

Aircraft damage
Like the real F-22, the iF-22 Raptor aircraft can
take considerable damage before being
destroyed. Each time your aircraft is hit by a
weapon, it sustains damage to the overall airframe and one or more subsystems. To view
you current damage status, switch one of your
MFDs to the Damage Mode (see “Damage
mode” on page 83), which identifies each
damaged and destroyed system.
Certain systems on your aircraft are critical systems, which means that your aircraft will not
stay airborne if they be destroyed. Critical F-22
systems are:

• Airframe
• Fuel cells
• Computer
Also, if your aircraft receives enough damage,
regardless of the affected systems, it is not
likely to stay airworthy. On the Damage MFD
mode, there is an overall damage indicator,
which changes color from blue to red as your
aircraft receives damage. When it’s red or
blinking red, your plane may explode, so consider punching out (ejecting).

Using your wingmen
Wingmen in iF-22 Raptor do exactly what you
tell them. After takeoff they fly off your wing
until they are attacked, at which time they
defend themselves, or you tell them to do
something. To order your wingmen use your
UHF (see page 61), IFDL (see page 61), or
Guard (see page 62) communication systems,
but not the Chat system. For example, to get
your wingmen to attack someone simply target the object and tell your wingmen to
"Attack my target." For a full list of wingman
communications see Appendix C, “Prescripted Communication Messages.” Many
mission require the use of wingmen in order
to achieve the mission objectives, so don’t forget they exist.

Multiplayer sessions
In multiplayer sessions, the game concepts
pause and accelerated time lose their meaning
and have therefore been disabled.

Operations
This section describes basic operations such as
taking off and dogfighting.

• Engines

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

Taking off and landing
Take off
You can begin a mission either on the runway
or in the air. When beginning on the runway,
return your throttle to the idle position by
pressing the 1 key above the keyboard or by
pulling the throttle all the way back, and then
turn on your engines (right and left) by pressing Ctrl-R and Ctrl-L.
With your aircraft lined up in the center of the
runway, release your wheel brakes (W), and
increase to maximum throttle—afterburners
are not required. Use gentle rudder control to
stay on the runway while you accelerate. When
you reach approximately 150 knots, pull back
on the stick to get airborne. At this point, look
at the mission waypoints displayed in the Tactical mode and then turn toward the active
waypoint. You’re off and running!

Landing
To land your aircraft, fly to your last waypoint
and turn the ILS system on by pressing the /
key. In the Tactical MFD mode, your mission
waypoints are replaced by landing points for
the nearest airfield. The landing points consist
of a point directly under your aircraft and
three points lined up with the runway: outer
marker point (OM) approximately 10 miles
from the touchdown point, inner marker
point (IM) approximately 5 miles from the
touchdown point, and touchdown point (TP).
The ILS system also switches your HUD modes
to ILS mode and displays the ILS needles. Press
Shift-A until a small R appears above you,
which indicates that you are using your radar
altimeter (which measures your altitude above
the ground).
The outer marker, inner marker, and touchdown point form a straight line ending on the
runway. Fly your waypoint path in the MFDs
to the outer marker and descend to altitude

1,500 ft., a speed of 150 knots, and set your
flaps to “FLAPS2” by pressing the H key twice.
Do not fly the ILS needles until you reach the
inner marker. Try to stay exactly on the line
between the outer marker and inner marker. At
the inner marker, you should start to descend
using the ILS needles. Extend your landing
gear by pressing the G key. As you approach
the touchdown point, drop your speed to 135
knots.
Just before you touch down, drop your speed
to about 120 knots and pull your nose up a little so the first thing to hit the runway is your
back gear. As soon as your back gear touches
down, cut your engines and apply your wheel
brake by pressing the w key. You can also use
your airbrake to slow down, but its effectiveness diminishes as your speed decreases.
Congratulations! You just landed your aircraft,
which is undoubtedly one of the harder things
pilots master. While on the ground, you can
end your mission at any time by pressing
Ctrl-Q without penalty.
There are two things to remember about landing in iF-22 Raptor. First, at about 225 knots,
your aircraft automatically retracts landing
gear and flaps to avoid damaging them. Second, in the realistic flight model, your flaps are
not only automatically retracted but are also
automatically extended by the flight control
system to aid in controlled flight of the aircraft.

Dogfighting: air-to-air attacks
Air-to-air combat is divided into two phases:
beyond visual range (BVR) and visual engagements.

BVR engagements
In BVR engagements, the only contact you
have with the enemy is your radar MFD modes
and HUD. Select your medium range (5–30

Operations

miles) AIM-120A and AIM-120C AMRAAMs
by pressing Enter until they appear in the
lower left corner of the HUD. Lock onto a target by preparing a shootlist (S key), selecting
the target nearest to the center of your HUD
(L key), or by clicking on an air target (a red
circle with a line extending from it) in an
MFD. Turn toward your target by following
the target line extending from the center of
your HUD. When the target is in your HUD, a
large triangle appears around it with a line
extending from it.
For your missile to be able to hit your target,
you need a “SHOOT” cue displayed in the bottom of you HUD. To get a “SHOOT” cue, two
parameters must be met. The first is that your
target must be inside of your weapon’s effective range, which is displayed on the right side
of the HUD and the Attack MFD mode. The
effective range of your weapon is displayed as
the left bar with your target represented by a
small dot that slides up and down the to the
left of the bar. The right bar depicts 50 percent
of your target’s maximum weapon range, with
your aircraft depicted as a less-than sign (<)
that slides up and down to the right of the bar.
To bring your target into effective weapon
range, you need to maximize the velocity closure between you and your target (displayed
in the lower right of the HUD) by turning
directly at your target. When the dot representing your target is to the left of the bar, your target is inside your weapon’s effective range.
Your weapon must also be able to track its
intended target. The weapon acquisition and
track circle located in the bottom of your
HUD and the top of the Attack MFD mode
depicts your weapon’s field of view as a circle
and your target as a small dot. If the dot is
inside the circle, your weapon can track it. If it
is not in the circle, steer your aircraft until the
dot is within the circle.

When the target is within your weapon’s effective range and acquisition and track circle,
you’re ready to fire. If your weapon is not
armed (“ARMED” or “MARMED” in the upper
left of the HUD), arm it (Backspace key) and
fire away (space bar)! There is a one-second
delay between pressing the fire key and when
the weapon is launched due to the bay doors
opening and the weapon being extended from
weapons bay.
Remember that your aircraft is extremely
stealthy, so you should be able to shoot before
the bad guy even knows you’re there. But
when your doors open to launch the missile,
your stealth is reduced and you may become
visible if you are within the target’s radar cone.
Try to be off to a side or behind the target
before firing.

Visual engagements
Within 5 miles, select AIM-9M and AIM-9X
Sidewinders (1–5 miles) because AMRAAMs
don’t have enough acceleration and maneuver
time to be effective. Because your aircraft has
no infrared targeting mechanism, a
Sidewinder missile is extended from the weapons bay to search for targets after it is selected
and armed. Target an enemy aircraft and try to
get it into your HUD, where a dashed and
solid circle appears around the enemy.
To get a “SHOOT” cue, you need to get the target within the Sidewinder’s effective range and
its field of view. For the AIM-9M, the field of
view is 45 degrees to the right and left of your
nose, while the 9X can see 70 degrees to either
side of your nose. Therefore, you don’t necessarily have to see the target to get a “SHOOT”
cue, although the hit probability of your missile increases as the target nears the center of
the HUD.
If you can close within a half mile or less, your
Sidewinders become less effective, so you

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

should switch to your 20mm gun. You have
two sights available for your gun, a historical
lead predicting gunsight and an iron gun cross.
The historical lead predicting gunsight predicts
where bullets you fire now will be after they
have traveled 2,250 ft. This means you must
start firing your gun just before the target
passes into the gunsight. The iron gun cross
shows where your bullets would hit at 2,250 ft.
if you were flying straight and level. Because
you will almost never be flying straight and
level in a dogfight, this sight is only useful if
you are a good lead predictor.
There are a couple of things to remember
about visual engagements. First, because you
are in visual range, your stealth advantage is
negated and you must outperform the enemy
in order to win the engagement. Second, you
should keep your eye on the velocity closure
reading in the lower right corner of the HUD.
If you close in too rapidly on the target, you
risk an “overshoot” or passing the enemy,
which puts the target in prime firing position—the hunted becomes the hunter!
In the realistic flight model, your aircraft is
capable of high angle-of-attack maneuvers at
low speeds, which enables you to snap your
nose around to get quick missile and gun
shots. But beware—at low speeds, it’s easy to
pull too much angle-of-attack and lose control
of your aircraft.

Bombing: air-to-ground attacks
To make an air-to-ground attack, press Enter
to select an air-to-ground weapon, such as the
GBU-32 JDAM (see “US-built air-to-ground
weapons” on page 151). Lock onto a target by
preparing a shootlist (S key), selecting the target nearest to the center of your HUD (L key),
or by clicking on an air target (red dots for
enemy vehicles and yellow dots for buildings,
friendly and enemy) in an MFD. Turn toward

your target by following the target line extending from the center of your HUD. When the
target is in your HUD, a large square appears
around it.
The F-22 is not designed to perform dive
bombing or low level bombing, so level out
your aircraft once you’ve turned toward your
target. In the Tactical MFD mode, there is a
white circle with a dot in the center of it. The
dot shows the ballistic or unguided impact
point of your currently selected weapon. This
is the only bombing aide that appears in your
MFD when you use Mark 82, 83, and 84
unguided iron bombs or if you use laserguided bombs without a FAC to guide them.
The white circle represents the area to which
your weapon can be guided, given your current
altitude, speed, aircraft attitude, and the steering limits of your weapon.
Displayed on the right side of the HUD and
the Attack MFD mode is the effective range
scale for your bomb. It is depicted as a right
bracket with your current target shown as a
filled dot to the left of the bracket. The range
to target (in miles) is above the bracket.
Fly until the target icon on the MFD is inside
the white circle and the dot representing the
target in the HUD is to the left of the bracket.
When these parameters are met, a “DROP” cue
appears in the bottom of the HUD and Tactical MFD mode, indicating that your weapon
can be guided to your designated target. The
closer your target is to the ballistic impact
point of the weapon (dot inside the white circle) and to the center of the bracket in the
HUD, the better chance your weapon has of
hitting it.
As your aircraft climbs, the circle and the
bracket get larger and move farther away from
your aircraft, while they shrink and move
closer when you dive. When you release an
unpowered weapon, it assumes your speed,

Operations

heading, and altitude. All of these things
determine the fall time of the bomb, which in
turn dictates the area in which targets can be
hit. The higher the altitude, the longer the fall,
and the more time your weapon can steer
toward your target.

Deep Strike, stealthy infiltration
Deep Strike missions are unique missions
because it is more important to remain
unseen than to engage enemies other than
your mission targets. Because all Deep Strike
missions are scheduled with only one aircraft,
there are no wingmen to give away your position. It’s completely up to you to survive alone
and deep behind enemy lines.
The key to remaining unseen is staying clear of
enemy aircraft and ground units with radar
and infrared detection capabilities. Use the
RCS and Alt options on the Mission Planning window (see “PDA: Mission Planning”
on page 43) to plan a set of mission waypoints that steer clear of all known threats.
Assume a stealthy RCS and stay at relatively
high altitudes (30,000 ft. and above) to avoid
small SAM and radar sites. Use the Payload
screen to make sure you don’t have any external weapons because they greatly increase
your RCS. If necessary, lose some self-defensive weapons and move your mission-specific
weapons to internal hard points in order to
remain stealthy. If the enemy can’t see you,
they can’t kill you!
When you think you have the perfect mission
plan, select the Takeoff button to begin your
mission. If an AWACS is available, use your
UHF radio (U key), establish an In-FlightData-Link with it while you’re still on the
ground, and use its radar as your eyes throughout the mission. If no AWACS is available, use
your active radar sparingly and rely mainly on
your passive radar gear to warn you of enemies

attempting to detect you. Any use of your
active radar broadcasts your presence to every
enemy within your radar cone out to twice
your radar’s maximum range, or approximately 240 miles. When you do use your
active radar, it’s a good idea to immediately
turn and change altitude so enemy aircraft
can’t vector in to your position.
Once you are in the air, minimize your exposure to enemy units and aircraft. Because military intelligence isn’t always accurate, you’ll
probably find both enemy aircraft and air
defenses in your path. Avoid them at all costs,
using your Defense MFD mode to fly around
their radar detection envelopes, which should
be greatly reduced due to your RCS. Use the
Stealth MFD mode to make sure you are as
stealthy as you can possibly be. Correct all
RCS and Infrared Cross Section (IRCS) violators as soon as possible.
At your mission target, do whatever you have
to do to complete your mission. If this means
using your active radar, then do so, but avoid
making too many bomb passes. From the
minute you’re detected, enemy ready alert and
CAP aircraft start vectoring into your position.
After you leave the target area, follow the same
procedures you used during your ingress to
the target. When you get near the front line or
FEBA, you can engage enemies at your own
risk. But remember, there is nothing more
upsetting than flying a perfect mission for 30
minutes to an hour, only to get killed fooling
around on the way home.

Defensive countermeasures
Chaff
Chaff is a small packet of aluminum strips
used to fool radars. When a chaff packet is
released, the strips disperse in the airstream
and create a large radar cross section (RCS),

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

which may fool radar into believing it is the
aircraft. The chaff can fool radar for up to three
seconds, but after that, it is too dispersed.
Because chaff produces a large RCS, it compromises your stealth.
You can launch chaff at any time to try to fool
radar, but you have a limited quantity on
board your aircraft. To increase the effectiveness of chaff, combine its release with defensive maneuvers (see “Defensive maneuvers”
on page 96). When attempting to fool a radarguided missile, it’s best to launch chaff when
the missile is approximately five seconds from
impact (1–3 miles). This makes it difficult for
the missile to reacquire or lock onto your aircraft before it passes you.

Flare
A flare is a combustible device that burns at a
temperature simulating the infrared signature
of jet engines. When a flare is released, it
ignites behind the aircraft and creates a large
infrared cross section (IRCS), which may fool
an infrared search and track systems (IRST) for
up to three seconds. After that, it no longer
burns at the right temperature to create the
appropriate IRCS. Because a flare produces a
large IRCS, it compromises your stealth.
You can drop flares at any time to try to fool an
IRST, but you have a limited quantity on board
your aircraft. To increase the effectiveness of
flares, combine their release with defensive
maneuvers (see “Defensive maneuvers”).
When attempting to fool an infrared guided
missile, it’s best to drop flares when the missile
is approximately five seconds from impact (1–
3 miles). This makes it difficult for the missile
to reacquire your aircraft before it passes you.

ECM
Electronic countermeasures (ECM) is a piece
of equipment used to fool radar into believing
that your aircraft is somewhere other than

where it really is. When activated, ECM captures radar signals directed at your aircraft and,
after a varying time delay, transmits them back
to the sender. Over three seconds, the ECM
system gradually increases your apparent range
from the radar system and then begins a new
cycle. The net result is that radar systems see
your aircraft at incorrect ranges, which can
hamper tracking and firing, cause AAA to fire
ahead or behind your aircraft, and cause SAMs
to overshoot your aircraft. Because ECM deliberately emits a radar signal, it compromises
your stealth.
You can use ECM at any time to try to fool
radar systems. To increase the effectiveness of
ECM, combine it with chaff and defensive
maneuvers (see “Defensive maneuvers”).

Defensive maneuvers
Once an enemy acquires your aircraft, you
have several options to defeat the aircraft or
missiles tracking you. As the previous sections
explained, the F-22 has sophisticated ECM and
chaff to deceive enemy radar and radar-guided
missiles. It also carries ejectable flares to decoy
infrared missiles. These devices provide the
F-22 with the best technology in the world for
defeating weapon systems, but they do not
provide the maximum protection if used
alone.
Maneuvering is the ultimate savior. When a
launch occurs, turn to place the missile off
your wing. If it’s a radar-guided missile, activate your ECM. As it closes in, track it and continue to hold it off your wing by turning into it
in an increasingly hard turn. When it is about
five seconds from impact (1–3 miles), release
your chaff or flares and perform a break turn
toward the missile while dramatically pulling
up or down as altitude allows. If it is a heatseeking missile, pull your throttles to idle
when this is done. The idea is to make the missile overshoot by dramatically changing your

Operations

position in the sky. A missile may be able to
pull 20 as opposed to your 9 Gs, but it is traveling at speeds in the Mach 3+ range. This end
maneuver is a violent, maximum performance
maneuver—you’re fighting for your life.

Chapter 4: Flight Operations

Postflight Operations

Postflight operations include saving pilots,
locations, and missions for later play.

Ending a mission
To end a mission, press Ctrl-Q. Ejecting from
your aircraft by pressing Ctrl-E also ends a
mission, but your aircraft is lost and your pilot
has the potential of becoming missing in
action (MIA). To get full credit for your missions, do not exit until you’ve safely landed
and come to a complete stop. Exiting at any
other time may not give you the rewards for
your accomplishments.

Debriefing
PDA: Mission Debriefing
The Mission Debriefing page on the Debriefing window presents mission results specific
to you, your flight, and the entire air effort
during the last mission. It also displays a brief
Pilot Debriefing that lists promotions and
awards.

Mission briefing description and abbreviations:
•
•
•
•

FM—From (message sender)
TO—To (message recipient)
SUBJ—Subject
MSN NR—Mission number
1. Result: Mission result (see “Results”

below for more information)
2. Type: Mission type
3. Target: Mission target
4. BDA: Battle Damage Assessment (see
“Results” below for more information)
5. Effectiveness: Mission Effectiveness (see
“Results” below for more information)
6. TOT: Time on Target
7. T/O: Takeoff time
8. L/D: Landing time
9. Flight: Flight time
10. Amplifying Remarks: Other mission
details, including the percent target
destroyed
11. Your mission results: Things you
personally destroyed

Chapter 5: Postflight Operations

12. Your Entire Flight’s mission results:

Things you and your flight destroyed
13. Your Flight’s mission losses: Destroyed
aircraft from your flight
14. Overall Theater losses: Overall losses
throughout the theater
15. Joint Rivet threat assessment: Description
of actual threats along your waypoint path
Pilot debriefing—Name of pilot who received
a decoration or promotion; also lists award
type. Name of aircraft and missile type that
shot you down, if applicable.
Continue—Exits the Debriefing window.

Results
There are three measures of your mission
success:

100

Mission Result—A text measure of your overall mission success, ranging from “Poor” to
“Outstanding.”
Battle Damage Assessment—Measure of the
number of enemy aircraft, vehicles, and structures you and your flight destroyed.
Mission Effectiveness—Measure of your total
effectiveness that takes enemy and friendly
losses as well as time-on-target into account.

Victory and defeat
iF-22 Raptor uses a number of factors to determine the success or failure of each mission.
The first factor considered is your time-on-target. Because other people are counting on you
to perform your mission on time, you need to
be at your target, CAP, or rendezvous waypoint
on time. In the bottom right corner of the Nav-

Campaigns

igation HUD mode, there is a timer that displays the difference between your scheduled
and actual time-on-target. If the value is negative, you are behind schedule and you should
increase your speed until it reads roughly zero.
The second factor considered is the minimization of losses on your side, which includes
your flight and any flight you are escorting.
The third factor is how many enemies you
killed, but destruction of mission targets is
also essential. Mission targets for air-toground missions appear with an asterisk (*)
beside them in the HUD and MFDs. Mission
targets for air-to-air missions are simply
enemy aircraft.

Campaigns
Your aircraft and flight are just a small part of
a much larger campaign that ranges across vast
areas (theaters) and that involves many thousands of combatants. Each time you fly a mission, you have the opportunity to affect the
overall war effort. Your influence can make the
difference between friendly ground forces capturing one area or retreating from another.

PDA: Campaign Debriefing
The Campaign Debriefing page of the Debriefing window presents the state of your squadron and the war effort. It details squadron
missions and sorties flown as well as squadron
aircraft lost. It also presents the results of
enemy and allied ground offensives.

101

Chapter 5: Postflight Operations

Campaign progression

Ending a campaign

The current state of the campaign is represented as a front line or forward edge of the
battle area (FEBA). This line divides the areas
held by both sides and indicates areas where
major ground battles are likely to occur.
Before, during, and after you fly a mission,
both ground combatants and aircraft fight to
gain control of areas along the FEBA and
therefore expand their area of influence within
the theater.

Campaigns end when your side captures the
last enemy held objective, the enemy captures
the last friendly held objective, or when both
sides decide to try peace. To see how close you
are to winning or losing a campaign based on
the objectives, select the Objectives button on
the Mission Planning map, which displays
how many objectives are currently held by
both enemy (red) and allied (blue) forces and
which objectives are currently being fought
over or are neutral (green).

The ultimate objective of each side during a
campaign is to control all of the objectives
within the theater. Objectives are areas of
extreme value, such as major cities, port facilities, road and railroad junctions, bridges,
power facilities, and airports. To view the campaign objectives, select the Objectives button
on the Mission Planning window.
You can directly influence the ground war by
flying missions near or at the FEBA. If you
want to influence the campaign in general, fly
missions over friendly airspace or behind
enemy lines.

Resupply and reinforcements
Throughout a campaign, the opposing forces
take casualties in personnel, aircraft, ground
vehicles, and ordinance. Each force has a rate
at which they gain reinforcements and resupply to offset losses. If you inflict numerous
losses on the enemy air defense vehicles, they
can’t put up a sufficient defense network until
reinforcements arrive. Similarly, if your squadron has excessive aircraft losses, it can’t perform all of the missions necessary to assist the
ground forces or maintain air superiority. To
find out when reinforcements and resupply
will arrive, look at the Campaign Intro/Update
window (see page 39).

102

After a number of missions, the United
Nations (UN) steps in and tries to get each
side to agree to peace. When this happens,
you’ll see a UN window asking if you agree to
peace talks, which effectively ends the campaign. If you prefer to continue the war, reject
the peace overture.

PDA: Campaign Summary
When you complete a campaign (win, lose, or
stalemate), the Campaign Summary window
is displayed. This window presents the overall
results of the campaign and statistics such as

Pilot statistics, medals, and awards

number of enemies you destroyed and number of aircraft your flight has lost.

Pilot statistics, medals,
and awards
As you complete missions and campaigns,
iF-22 Raptor keeps track of your results. You
earn medals and promotions for successful
efforts. There are three type of awards in iF-22
Raptor: ribbons, medals, and promotions.
Ribbons are awards that can be achieved by
routine feats (such as minor mission successes) and by successfully completing
campaigns.
Medals require more heroic feats and are
awarded based on one of three categories:
unique circumstances, mission success inde-

pendent of difficulty level, and mission success dependent on difficulty level. The Air
Force Achievement Medal, Distinguished Flying Cross, and Air Force Distinguished Service
Medal are awarded based on mission success
independent of difficulty level.
The Silver Star, Air Force Cross, and Air Force
Congressional Medal of Honor—the most
coveted medals in the game—are awarded
based on both mission success and difficulty
level. To be considered for these medals, your
difficulty level needs to be 100 percent.
The remaining two medals, the Air Medal and
Purple Heart, are awarded based on unique
circumstances. The Air Medal is awarded for
every ten combat missions flown. Each time
you choose to resurrect your pilot, you receive
a Purple Heart.

103

Chapter 5: Postflight Operations

Two Hall of Fame boards show the ten highest
mission and overall scores. After completing
every mission, iF-22 Raptor checks to see if
your score deserves a place in the Hall of Fame.
If it does, you’ll see the appropriate Hall of
Fame with your pilot’s name and callsign
highlighted. Feel free to browse the records
and accomplishments of the other pilots in
the Hall of Fame by clicking on their plaques.

Death
Each time you bail out and land behind
enemy lines, or if your plane is destroyed, your
pilot is lost. You have the option of accepting
the loss or resurrecting the pilot. If you choose
to “accept your fate,” then your pilot and all
save games associated are lost, but your pilot’s
record is still available for review via the Ready
Room. If you decide to save your pilot, the
pilot automatically receives a Purple Heart.
If you use the invulnerability options, your
pilot will never receive a Purple Heart and can
never be lost. However, it is mathematically
impossible to receive the most coveted medals
using invulnerability. You must choose
between immortality in action or the ultimate
medals—you can’t have both.

104

Multiplayer sessions
Multiplayer sessions, except for cooperative
single missions, have their own unique scoring
systems. For head-to-head dogfight sessions,
there is a running total for each player (listed
by callsign) in the upper right side of the window. The total shows number of kills each
player has scored (the first number) versus the
number of times the player has been killed
(second number). At the end of the session,
the player with the most kills sees a victory
window, while all other players view a defeat
window.
In head-to-head capture the flag sessions, the
sudden death victor is the first team to land
their C-17 transport on the neutral airfield,
thereby capturing it. At this point, every player
on the winning side views a victory window,
while the losing team views the defeat
window.
Multiplayer cooperative single missions operate identically to regular single missions and
therefore end in the same ways.
When you die in multiplayer sessions, one of
two things happens. In cooperative single missions, you are reincarnated at your previous
waypoint. In capture-the-flag and dogfights,
you are reincarnated at your original starting
location.

General Principles

This chapter describes how the US Air Force
organizes its units as well as basic principles of
physics that affect flying a plane.

Air Force
organizational units
iF-22 Raptor uses the standard US Air Force
aircraft organization scheme. The smallest
organizational element in iF-22 Raptor is the
flight, which consists of one to four similar
planes (all F-15s or F-22s, for example) on a
similar mission. Throughout this simulation,
you’ll play the role of a flight leader for each
of your missions.
The next level of aircraft organization is the
squadron, which consists of 18 to 24 similar
aircraft based at the same air base. At the start
of each campaign, your squadron consists of
18 aircraft for which you receive replacement
aircraft if you suffer losses.

The final level of organization is an air force,
which is composed of two or more wings. An
example of an air force is the 3rd Air Force
located in Mildenhall, England—not the US
Air Force.

Flight principles
This section explains the rules of aerodynamics that affect flying, such as lift and drag. It
also describes pilot maneuvers.

Basic physics
You don’t need to be an engineer to enjoy
iF-22 Raptor, but a basic understanding of the
following aerodynamic principles will help
you get the best performance from your aircraft and may keep you out of the dirt:

Groups of two or more squadrons form wings.
Wings can be comprised of squadrons made
up of completely different aircraft, such as a
squadron of A-10s and a squadron of F-22s.

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Chapter 6: General Principles

Lift—Bernoulli’s Law says that the faster a
body of air moves, the less pressure it exerts
along its path. If you look at the cross-section
of a wing, you see the upper side of the wing is
curved (cambered), while the bottom half is
essentially flat. Therefore, the air passing over
the wing travels faster than that going under.
This creates a lower pressure on top of the
wing and allows the higher pressure on the
bottom to “lift up” on the wing. If you don’t
have lift, you don’t fly.
Drag—There are two types of drag, which is
the resistance that air creates on a moving aircraft. Parasitic drag is caused by the air impacting or passing over the structure of the aircraft
and can be affected by changing the physical
configuration of the airplane. Lowering the
gear and flaps or carrying external stores creates a larger surface area and increases drag.
Induced drag is created as a function of lift
being created by your wings and the speed of
your aircraft. In other words, your drag
increases whenever you increase the lift or
speed on your F-22. Keeping these effects in
mind is very important when maneuvering
against an enemy.
Angle of Attack (AoA)—This is the angular
difference between the wing and the direction
of the airflow striking the wing. You can use it
as a measure of the lift being produced by a
wing. The lift a wing produces at a given airspeed increases as AoA is increased, but only
up to a point. Beyond that point, the wing
begins to “stall” or lose lift. Created by the air
flow separating from the top of the wing, stalling can cause a loss of control.
Stall—To rid yourself of the stall, you must
reduce the AoA by releasing some or all of the
back pressure on your control stick.
NOTE: With its thrust vectoring and

advanced fly-by-wire technology, the F-22 is
controllable even when the wings are stalled,

106

but you must have a very soft touch on the
controls.
Thrust and thrust vectoring—Newton’s Law
says that for every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction. Therefore, if you inflate a
balloon and release it, it jets away from the
open end in reaction to the air rushing out of
the opening. Jet engines compress air and
burn fuel to create a high pressure inside that
exits out the exhaust. The force this creates is
called thrust. Thrust drives your aircraft in the
direction opposite the thrust direction or vector. In most aircraft, the thrust vector is parallel to the fuselage and pushes the aircraft
forward. Next generation aircraft (such as the
F-22) use a controllable thrust vectoring that
can be moved up or down, thereby greatly
affecting the aircraft’s maneuverability.
Thrust-to-Weight (T/W) ratio—The T/W ratio
of an aircraft is found by dividing the thrust of
an aircraft by its weight. Modern fighters generally have a T/W ratio greater than 1:1, which
indicates a formidable excess of power available to enhance maneuvering and to sustain
energy.
Flaps—Flaps are movable devices on the trailing or leading edges of the wings that a pilot
moves to increase the surface area and camber
of the wing, thereby increasing lift. They also
significantly increase drag. The flaps on the
F-22 are automatically programmed by the
Operational Flight Program and are based on
predetermined flight laws.

Flight principles

the direction of turn. The amount of this force
is measured in Gs, or forces of gravity, with 1G
equaling the amount of force exerted by Earth
on any object. These Gs increase the apparent
weight of all objects changing direction,
including the aircraft and you. A positive G
refers to an increase in the force in a direction
from your head downward. A negative G is
apparent in the opposite direction. All aircraft
have structural G limits. If you exceed those
limits, your aircraft can fail structurally.
Aileron—These devices control roll, are
hinged to the rear of the wing, and are controlled by the control stick. (Move the stick
left and right to roll left and right.) When you
move your control stick left, the aileron on the
right wing moves down, increasing its camber,
which increases the lift of that wing, causing
the right wing to rise and roll the aircraft left.
Horizontal stabilizer—These control surfaces, which are controlled by the control
stick, are the small wings on the rear end of
the aircraft and are used primarily to control
pitch. Unlike the main wings, stabilizers are
generally symmetrical in shape, thus producing the same amount of force on the top and
bottom. To pitch the nose up, pull back on the
control stick. Moving the leading edge of the
stabilizer down increases lift on the underside
and pulls the tail of the aircraft down, pitching
the nose up.
Speed brakes—The speed brakes are movable
surfaces on an aircraft used to rapidly increase
the parasitic drag and quickly slow the aircraft.
The F-22 does not have separate speed
brakes—it moves its two rudders in opposite
directions to create the needed drag.
G-forces—When maneuvering, aircraft generate forces in all axes of flight. Anytime the
F-22 changes direction, in any axis, that
change creates a force toward the outside of

Blackout/Redout—Just as aircraft have G limits, the pilots flying them have limits also. The
high performance of today’s aircraft places
severe physical stresses on the pilots and, in
fact, this limit is now considered by many to
be the limiting factor in aircraft design. The
two primary symptoms caused by G-load are
blackout and redout. These phenomena can
completely incapacitate a pilot and cause the
loss of an aircraft. Excessive negative Gs push
blood into the head, causing the pilot’s vision
to turn red. Excessive application of negative
Gs can result in ruptured blood vessels in the
eyes and brain and can cause permanent damage. Positive Gs make it harder for the heart to
pump blood to the brain and, if maintained at
a high level, can cause the pilot to lose consciousness. When Gs are released, blood
returns to the brain, and the pilot regains consciousness but is in a confused state for some
time. If you black out in your F-22, you will be
a somewhat sloppy pilot for a period of time.
Your enemies have the same problems. The
F-22 uses a reclining pilot seat, the Advanced
Technology Anti-G Suit (ATAGS), and Combined Advanced Technology Enhanced Design
G-Ensemble (COMBATEDGE) to minimize
these limits. See “Blackouts and redouts” on
page 115 for more information on blackout
and redout.

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Chapter 6: General Principles

Maneuvering

Flight controls

This section explains aircraft controls and how
to use them to maneuver.

All aircraft can be maneuvered anywhere in
the sky through movements in the following
three axes. The ability of an aircraft to maneuver in these axes defines its maneuverability or
agility.

Flight control system
For years, aircraft were controlled by the pilot
controls in the cockpit (throttle, stick, and rudder pedals) that moved cables and rods connected directly to the control surfaces of the
aircraft. As speeds and aircraft size rose, the
force required to move the control surfaces
increased to the point where pilots simply
weren’t strong enough. Hydraulic actuators
were introduced to assist, but these were activated by a physical connection to the cockpit
through the same cables and rods.
The fighter technology of today has removed
those physical cables and replaced them with
electrons and light “cables”; this is called flyby-wire. In this system, the pilot still makes a
control movement to cause the aircraft to perform a maneuver. However, these control
inputs are now converted to electrical signals,
which are passed through a high-speed computer that determines what control surface
changes are needed and then sends signals to
electrically activated hydraulic actuators connected to the surfaces. It does this according to
preset flight laws in its software. This entire
process takes milliseconds. Pilot input for
engine performance is handled in the same
manner. A throttle movement generates a signal that is sent to a microprocessor controlling
the engine. The microprocessor evaluates the
signal against factors such as speed, AoA, temperature, pressures, and fuel flows. If the processor determines that the action requested by
the pilot is safe, it sends appropriate signals to
the engine.

108

Roll—The longitudinal axis is defined by a
line extending lengthwise from the nose of the
aircraft through its tail. Rotation around this
axis results in a rolling motion of the aircraft
and is controlled primarily by movable surfaces on the trailing edge of the wings called
ailerons. The pilot controls roll through left/
right movements of the control stick. In addition to the ailerons, the F-22 sometimes uses
its horizontal stabilizers and rudders to assist
in roll.
Pitch—The lateral axis is essentially defined by
a line running from wingtip to wingtip. Rotation around this axis, controlled by the stabilizer, is manifested with movement of the
nose up and down and is called pitch. The
pilot controls pitch through forward and back
movements of the control stick. The F-22 is
expected to be the first production aircraft in
the world with added pitch control provided
by thrust vectoring. In this case, the engine
exhaust nozzles move up and down, directing
the thrust of the engines at an angle to the
fuselage. This adds to the pitching moment of
aircraft, particularly during low-speed flight.
Yaw—An aircraft experiences yaw whenever
there is a rotating moment about a vertical axis
drawn through the center of the aircraft. In
simple terms, yaw is the left-right movement

Flight principles

of the nose of an aircraft in the air and is controlled using the rudder pedals.

stored (fuel). Maneuvers and decisions you
make with your aircraft affect the energy state
and will dramatically impact the performance.
Keep this in mind when reading about the following performance measurements:
Speed
Speed is life…Israeli Tactics Manual
Acceleration is of key importance and often overlooked…Lt. General Adolph Galland, Luftwaffe

Throttle—Controls the aircraft’s forward
thrust and velocity

The preceding quotations may sound repetitive, but realize that there are different kinds
of speed. If an aircraft accelerates well, it’s
often called “quick.” This is a good characteristic for aircraft involved in classic dogfights,
during which the ability of an airplane to gain
speed and energy is essential. However, that
aircraft doesn’t necessarily need an extremely
high top-speed or to be “fast.” An interceptor
needs that high top-speed to enable it to rapidly reach out and touch the enemy far from
the base or target it was protecting. The F-22
presents an excellent compromise in this area
with its Supercruise capability, which provides
a very good top speed (Mach 1.78 without
afterburner, near Mach 2.0 with afterburner)
and excellent thrust-to-weight ratio.

Aircraft performance

Turn capability

It’s very difficult to say that one aircraft is better than another because performance is made
up of so many factors. One plane may prove
be far superior in one performance factor but
not even compete in another. Also, certain
missions require superior performance in
some aspects, so a mission-specific aircraft’s
lack of performance in an area outside the
mission’s scope is generally considered
irrelevant.

[The Luftwaffe High Command] were stuck on
the idea that maneuverability in banking was primarily the determining factor in air combat.…They could not or simply would not see that
for modern fighter aircraft the tight turn as a form
of aerial combat represented the exception…
Lt. General Adolph Galland, Luftwaffe

Control devices
All fixed-wing aircraft have three devices that
control movement:
Flight stick—Controls the aircraft roll (left
and right stick movement) and pitch (up and
down stick movement)
Rudder pedals—Control the aircraft’s yaw
angle (left and right pedal movements)

A common performance issue for all aircraft is
managing the energy of the airplane in any
phase of flight. This energy can be potential
(altitude is an example), kinetic (speed), or

Turning ability can be a critical aspect of
fighter design. But like speed, judging the turn
capability of an aircraft depends on what type
turn capability you need. Turning ability of an
aircraft is usually measured in two ways:
instantaneous turn rate and sustained turn
rate.

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Chapter 6: General Principles

The instantaneous turn rate is the maximum
rate of turn (in degrees per second) that an aircraft can generate without overstressing the
airframe. It is usually performed by executing a
break turn, but you will lose speed/energy
whenever you execute a break turn. Use this
turn to break a missile lock or gun track or to
get that nose position for your own shot.
Sustained turn rate is the maximum rate of
turn an aircraft can generate without losing
energy. It’s important to remember that you
can maintain a sustained turn rate until you
run out of fuel or your body just can’t take it
any more. The F-22 can maintain higher sustained and instantaneous rates of turn than
conventional aircraft because of its unique
thrust vectoring capability. But be aware of
your body’s limitations to handle the incredible forces involved.

Effects of weapon loadouts
The F-22, due to its stealthiness and advanced
weapons system, isn’t required to carry heavy
payloads compared to aircraft such as the
F-15. The wings of any aircraft create only so
much lift. Adding more weight to the aircraft
with weapons or fuel means that more of that
generated lift is used to keep the aircraft aloft
rather than being available for turn performance. To achieve better performance, don’t
load your aircraft down with weapons or fuel
you don’t need.
Similarly, carrying external stores on your
wings hinders the roll rate of your aircraft and
thus its performance. An even greater penalty
is paid by your stealth factor in this case, so
carrying external stores is not recommended
except in extreme circumstances.

Recently, advanced flight computer programming and design have allowed the use of the
rudders and stabilizers to enhance the roll rate
of modern aircraft. The latest performance
enhancement, however, has been the addition
of thrust vectoring, which involves moving the
exhaust nozzles of an aircraft to redirect the
thrust vector. This imparts a force not directly
along the fuselage line of the aircraft and
causes it to move the rear end of the aircraft in
the direction opposite the new thrust vector.
The F-22’s thrust vectoring affects the pitch
axis of the aircraft by ±20 degrees. This provides it with improved instantaneous and sustained turn capability, improved low airspeed/
high AoA control, better Mach 1+ turn ability,
and the ability to point the nose of the aircraft
more effectively to improve its weapons’ effectiveness. The entire vectoring system is fully
automated and controlled by the flight
dynamics computer. You as a pilot never see
the vectoring system working; you see only the
result.

Basic fighter maneuvers
When fighter pilots are engaged in a close-in
dogfight, they use a series of maneuvers to
gain a positional advantage over their adversary. These maneuvers by themselves are not
“magic” and are really are extensions of other
maneuvers the pilots have learned since entering flight training. The magic comes with
knowing when to perform which maneuvers
and integrating these maneuvers, sometimes
simultaneously, into a series of actions that
result in a superior firing position.

Maneuver factors

Thrust vectoring

Factors affecting basic fighter maneuvers are as
follows:

Nearly all aircraft are maneuvered through the
use of the control devices mentioned earlier:
rudders, ailerons, and horizontal stabilizers.

Angle Off the Tail (AOT)—Measurement of
degrees off an enemy’s tail. If you are at the six

110

Flight principles

o’clock position of an aircraft, you are 0
degrees AOT. If you are directly off either
wing, the AOT is 90 degrees, and straight
ahead is 180 degrees AOT.

Nose phase—The position of an aircraft’s
nose. Is it high? Is it low? Going right or left?
See the “General rules for fighting” on
page 114.
Closure—Measurement, in knots, of how fast
you are closing range with another aircraft.
Energy state—The total energy an aircraft has,
whether it is speed, altitude, or power. This is
the single most important resource to manage
during an engagement.

Maneuver definitions
Let’s look at some of the basic maneuvers and
discuss what each one accomplishes:

Track Crossing Angle (TCA)—Instantaneous
measurement of the angular differences in
velocity vectors of two aircraft. If your flight
path is parallel to that of another aircraft, you
have a 0 degree TCA. If you are approaching
perpendicular to the flight path, you have a
TCA of 90 degrees. A pure head-on pass has a
TCA of 180 degrees.

Lead pursuit—A method of interception
where the nose of the attacking aircraft is positioned ahead of the target aircraft to “cut across
the circle.” This maneuver reduces TCA and
increases closure to the maximum rate. Most
effective at high AOT, it does cause an increase
in AOT initially.

Pure pursuit—A method of interception
where the nose of the attacking aircraft is positioned on the target aircraft. This maneuver
reduces TCA without increasing AOT at the
expense of a reduced closure rate.

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Chapter 6: General Principles

Lag pursuit—A method of interception where
the nose of the attacking aircraft is positioned
behind the target aircraft. This maneuver
reduces AOT at the maximum rate while maintaining TCA and stopping closure.

attacking aircraft toward the target aircraft’s
flight path.

Hard turn—A maneuvering turn, usually into
the opposing aircraft, at a G-force that allows
the pilot to maintain energy (no loss of speed
or altitude).
Break turn—A maneuvering turn, usually into
the opposing aircraft, that sacrifices energy for
maximum turn rate and reduced turn radius.
Lag roll—A maneuver performed by executing
a rolling pull-up in the direction outside the
turn to decrease closure and prevent overshoot
without sacrificing speed or energy. The roll is
done against a turning aircraft to roughly
maintain the attacker’s lift vector on the target’s flight path, and G is adjusted to arrive at a
point just behind the target. This maneuver is
used in situations of high closure and low
AOT.

Lag roll
Displacement roll—Similar to the lag roll,
this maneuver is used in close-range, low closure situations to reduce AOT and increase
range. Again, a rolling pull up to the outside of
the turn is performed; however, in this situation, the G is adjusted based solely on nose-totail range and angular displacement of the

112

Displacement roll
Barrel-roll attack—Similar to the previous
rolling attacks, the barrel-roll attack is executed in the same manner but with the goal
being to displace the attacking aircraft in the
rear hemisphere of the target aircraft and with
an altitude advantage that can be used to further maneuver for the advantage. Effectively, it
is a very slow roll with an extended climb that
conserves energy and results in an inverted
position well above the target aircraft and transitioning to the rear hemisphere. The maneuver is completed to approach the target from
above and off to one side.

Barrel roll
High Yo-Yo—This maneuver is used to prevent
overshoot or to reduce AOT in similar-speed
situations when excessive lead is not available.
The vertical is used to maintain energy while
decreasing closure. The wings are rolled level
(or nearly), and a pull-up is initiated until a
point is reached in the upper rear hemisphere

Flight principles

of the target aircraft with nearly zero closure.
The attacking aircraft then rolls into the target
aircraft in the appropriate pursuit curve.

craft reverses back into the attacker as it turns
back toward the target. This results in another
overshoot, and the aircraft then reverses again.
This situation continues until a stalemate
occurs or one aircraft (usually the slower of
the two) gains a favorable advantage. Scissors
can be either flat (level reversals on one
another), rolling (where both the horizontal
and vertical are used), or vertical.

Hi Yo-Yo maneuver
Low Yo-Yo—This maneuver is used to increase
closure and angular advantage. The nose of
the attacker is lowered and the aircraft rolled
to place its lift vector in a lead pursuit position
ahead of the bogey aircraft. This maneuver
increases closure, and range is reduced by cutting across the circle. The attacker then climbs
back to a position behind and level with the
target aircraft.

Scissors maneuver
Immelmann—A vertical maneuver used to
manage energy and gain an altitude advantage
while changing direction. Accomplished by
performing a half-loop and rolling wings level
on the top.

Low Yo-Yo maneuver
Scissors—This maneuver occurs when two
aircraft attempt to maintain their lift vectors
on one another. An example is an overshoot
by an attacker during which the attacked air-

Immelmann maneuver

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Chapter 6: General Principles

Split S—The reverse of an Immelmann where
the aircraft is rolled inverted and the last half
of a loop performed.

Split S maneuver
Lead turn—This maneuver is used by the
attacker when converging on the target aircraft
with a very high AOT (from the forward hemisphere). A turn into the target aircraft begins
well before the aircraft are abeam. The turn is
continued until approaching 0 degrees AOT or
a point where a lag pursuit can commence.
Head-on options—These are basically turn
direction options afforded aircraft with very
high AOT approaches (forward hemisphere)
and can be accomplished in the vertical as well
as horizontal. They are defined by the resulting relative position if the turns are held to
conclusion. The first of these turns is the noseto-nose maneuver, in which both aircraft turn
toward the same side. If held, similar performing aircraft will pass nose-to-nose on the
opposite side of the circle, 180 degrees from
where they began. The second option is the
nose-to-tail maneuver, which is accomplished
when the merging aircraft turn toward one
another at the merge. This option results in
similar performance aircraft being widely separated with 0 degrees TCA when the turn has
completed 180 degrees. The decision of which
of these options to choose is strongly influenced by flight path separation and turn
performance.

114

Bug out and extension—A disengagement
maneuver best performed when the flight
paths of two aircraft are diverging and one
attempts to gain horizontal separation either
to exit the fight or to maneuver for reengagement. The goal is to gain maximum energy
and speed to affect the separation and establish the aircraft in a more advantageous position from which to reenter the fight. It is best
accomplished by “unloading” the aircraft (go
to 0 G and full power). This results in maximum acceleration and separation.

General rules for fighting
There are some basic rules to follow to
improve your chances of success during
fighting:
Match nose phase of bogey—If the enemy’s
nose starts up/down, move yours in the same
direction.
Match lift vector of bogey—Basically, maintain the same roll angle as your enemy.
Maintain range and closure—Control these
variables to prevent large swings in the
situation.
Put the bogey on your nose—When in doubt,
strive to maintain the enemy in your forward
hemisphere.
Use the vertical—Don’t get stuck in a horizontal turning match. Using the vertical helps you
manage your energy and decrease apparent
turn radii.

Stalls
The Immelmann Turn was very successful….But
later, when more powerful engines became available, it was a dangerous move, for the lower pilot
could climb after the Fokker and attack the enemy
when it hung almost motionless in the vertical
position, not under full control, and presenting an
easy shot…Air Vice-Marshal J.E. “Johnnie”

Flight principles

Johnson, Leading RAF Ace in Europe, WWII,
38 Victories
As described on page 106, when the AoA of a
wing reaches a certain point, the airflow over
the top of the wing begins to detach from the
surface of the wing, and a loss of lift occurs.
This results in an instability in the aircraft and
a decrease in the control available.
Because of these problems, it is best to avoid
stalling the aircraft if at all possible. A stall can
usually be recognized by an airframe buffet
and gradually changing control authority. In
addition, the F-22’s aural warning system will
advise you of an approaching stall. However,
there are times when you will unknowingly,
or purposely, find yourself in a stall but still
need to control your aircraft. The F-22’s stateof-the-art flight dynamics computer is optimized for this type of flight, and its thrust vectoring lets you fly at AoAs unavailable to most
fighters. Be gentle with your controls and
avoid large rudder inputs. You can then continue fighting under control when other aircraft are struggling just to maintain controlled
flight.
To recover from a stall, pitch your aircraft’s
nose down to gain airspeed and avoid drastic
control stick and rudder movements. When
the aircraft gains sufficient airspeed, it should
return to normal controlled flight.

Spins
A spin results when factors combine to upset
the balance of stable, controlled flight and
cause an excessive yaw rate. A spin is actually a
balanced (although uncontrolled) state of
flight, which means that you should take positive action to unbalance the flight and recover
from the spin. The flight dynamics computer
of the F-22 recognizes the onset of a spin and
attempts to prevent entry.

To recover from a spin, point your aircraft
nose down to gain speed and apply rudders
opposite of the spin direction (differential
rudders). This usually brings the aircraft back
under your control, but when all else fails,
point your nose down and release the stick.
This gives the flight control system full control
over your control surfaces, which can greatly
aid in spin recovery.

Blackouts and redouts
Your aircraft is capable of sustaining incredible G loads, but you are not! Whenever you
pull more than six Gs, you begin restricting
the blood flow to your upper extremities. This
in turn deprives your brain of much-needed
oxygen and can result in loss of consciousness.
The rate at which you black out increases as
you near nine Gs, your plane’s imposed limit.
There are also dire effects for sustaining too
many negative Gs. Whenever you sustain negative one to negative three Gs (imposed aircraft limit), you’re forcing too much blood
into your brain and begin to suffer a redout.
As with blackouts, the onset of redouts
increases as you sustain more negative Gs.
Neither blackout or redouts are instantaneous
effects, so when the screen begin to turn black
or red, take measures to counter these effects.
To negate the onset of blackouts or redouts,
release your flight stick or minimize the G
load of your aircraft (bring the G load closer
to one).

Ejecting
Sometimes, the aircraft is uncontrollable
despite your best efforts. When that happens,
you have no choice but to save yourself to
fight another day. To help you do this, modern
fighters are equipped with rocket-propelled
ejection seats. The F-22, equipped with the

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Chapter 6: General Principles

ACES II seat with the Advanced Recovery
Sequencer (ARS), provides you a safe, reliable
seat with which to trust your life. When you
make a decision to eject and pull the handle,
you put into operation a complex but rapid
sequence of events that will give you the ride
of your life.
With the ACES II seat, you can exit the aircraft
through the canopy if it fails to be jettisoned.
Canopy breakers located on top of the seat
fracture the canopy before you go through it.
Upon ejection, the seat snaps to a vertical position and harness restraints pull you upright in
the seat to minimize back injury, and it repositions your legs and feet. A gas-generation gun
is fired, and the seat begins to travel up the
guide rails. Your arms and legs are drawn in to
the seat by a restraint system to prevent them
from flailing in the windstream and being
injured.
As the seat nears the top of the guide rails,
small rocket motors in the base of the seat fire,

generating approximately 5,000 lbs. of thrust.
This lifts the seat out of the aircraft and into
the windstream. Once clear of the aircraft, a
small parachute deploys to stabilize the seat.
At this point, the ARS evaluates the altitude
and airspeed to determine what happens next.
If the ejection occurred at high altitude, the
pilot remains in the stabilized seat until it falls
to approximately 11,000–14,000 ft. above sea
level, at which point the ARS automatically
deploys a drogue chute. The drogue chute
slows the seat further and then deploys the
main parachute. The pilot’s lap belt, leg
restraints, and arm restraints are released, and
the pilot is pulled from the seat by the main
chute opening. At low altitude, this entire process takes less than four seconds.
Refer to the following chart that outlines the
general “safe ejection” parameters for the F-22.
Please note that increasing dive angle, airspeed, or roll angle decreases the minimum
safe altitude.

Minimum Safe Ejection Altitude (ft.)

2000

Air Speed
>400 knots
Air Speed
250–400 knots

1500

Air Speed
130–250 knots
Air Speed
<130 knots

1000

500

0
10

Dive Angle (degrees)

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Stealth principles

Stealth principles
He who sees first, lives longest…Unknown
For years, combatants have struggled to avoid
being seen by either avoiding the enemy or
deceiving the enemy. At the same time, giant
strides have been taken toward detecting those
that are trying to hide or deceive. Today, detection of the enemy usually occurs through one
of four search and track systems.

Types of search and track systems
Search and track systems are as follows:
•
•
•
•

Radar
Infrared Search and Track (IRST)
Electronic signals
Mark I eyeball

Radar
Radar works on the principle of time. Electronic pulses, focused by the radar dish, are
transmitted in a very narrow beam. The dish
then switches into a receive mode and “listens.” When the transmitted pulse strikes an
object, the signal reflects from that object and
returns to the radar, which “hears” it. By calculating the time of the return and the bearing,
radar can pinpoint the position of an object.
Radar requires that the transmitted signal be
reflected strongly enough for the receiver to
detect the return. New technologies in aircraft
design and radar-absorbent materials have
reduced radar reflectivity—the radar cross section (RCS)—of aircraft dramatically. The F-22
is said to possess an RCS one-thousandth that
of the F-15, which severely reduces the range
at which radar can detect the aircraft.

pumps, exhausts, piping, and friction-generated heat on their skin (surface of the aircraft).
Infrared Search and Track (IRST) devices
detect the heat differences between the aircraft
and its background and display the target optically. Special materials, piloting skills, and
careful aircraft design can reduce the signature
and delay or prevent detection. The F-22 uses
all these technologies to reduce its susceptibility to IRST detection.

Electronic signals
Any electronic transmission acts as a beacon
to enemy surveillance equipment. The F-22
uses Low Probability of Intercept (LPI) radar
and a low-power data link to minimize its
electronic signature. However, despite the best
of stealth technologies, it is virtually impossible to hide your aircraft if you transmit using
radar, radio, or electronic countermeasures.
There are times when these transmissions are
necessary, but they must be kept to a minimum if the F-22 stealth is to be maintained.

Mark I eyeball
One peek is worth a thousand [radar] sweeps…
Unknown
The Mark I eyeball —the pilot’s eyes—is still
the fighter pilot’s last line of defense. A pilot
who sees the enemy first will generally win the
fight. Modern aircraft minimize their visual
signature as well, and a keen eye is necessary
to pick out the enemy fighter beyond 5 miles.

Maximizing stealth

Infrared Search and Track (IRST)

I attempt to attack out of the sun. If the enemy aircraft is surprised, he’s duck soup, but time is an
important factor and it should not be wasted in
securing position…Lt. Colonel John C. Meyer,
USAAF

Aircraft generate a heat “signature” in many
ways. Aside from their engines, there are

The F-22, when operating in stealthy mode,
minimizes the need for transmissions by rely-

117

Chapter 6: General Principles

ing on an integrated system of sophisticated
elements received via data link from the E-3
AWACS. This link provides the location of aircraft (determined by AWACS), enemy radar
radio sites (determined by Rivet Joint aircraft)
and ground targets (determined by JSTAR aircraft). This data is integrated and plotted on
the F-22 displays with no transmissions
required from the F-22.
If transmissions are required, here are a few
hints to minimize your aircraft’s exposure:
• Cycle your radar on only to update positions of enemy aircraft or to target them
directly with one of your radar-guided missiles.

118

• Keep radio transmissions under five
seconds.
• Don’t activate electronic countermeasures
unless you are in a high threat area with
several radars or are targeted and a missile
is on its way.
• Minimize use of your afterburners when
there is an infrared threat nearby.
• Don’t fly at low altitudes if at all possible.
This exposes the F-22 to a variety of optically aimed weapons alerted by sound or
sight.
• Don’t open the weapon bay doors until
necessary. The RCS increases dramatically
when these doors are open.

Campaign Scenarios

The Bosnian Conflict
History
15 June 2002
Sarajevo, Bosnia—The last UNEIFOR (United
Nations Extended Implementation Force)
unit, a French paratroop brigade, left Sarajevo
this afternoon, ending UN military involvement in the Dayton Accords. The decision to
end the peacekeeping mission, rather than
extend it for another year, was nearly as contentious as the conflict that the mission was
intended to resolve. American NATO and State
Department officials, supported by Poland
and Bulgaria, felt that “the nations of the
former Yugoslavia are still too riven by division...to be left without the stabilizing influence that a United Nations peacekeeping force
provides” and unsuccessfully fought to extend
the mission over the objections of the French
and German governments.

ping an incredible political comeback. After
serving as Vice President to Slobodan Milosovic, Plavsic became an outspoken opponent of
the Serbian government and its attempts at
reconciliation with the west. An ardent
nationalist, she championed Serbian “ethnic
self-fulfillment” during the recent election
campaign, striking a chord within a Serbian
population that has suffered from years of
hyperinflation and economic turmoil.
News of Plavsic’s election in October was
greeted with celebration in the streets by ethnic Serbs in neighboring Bosnia and Croatia,
who have claimed to be victims of unfair treatment and racial prejudice since the final withdrawal of UN forces in 2002.

12 December 2003
Beograd, Serbia—Today, Biljana Plavsic was
sworn in as the new President of Serbia, cap-

119

Chapter 7: Campaign Scenarios

22 December 2003
Beograd, Serbia—At a press conference today,
Serbian government officials announced that
Serbia was “interested in the welfare and well
being of Serbs everywhere,” and that they
would begin collecting information on the
abuse of ethnic Serbs in neighboring Bosnia
and Croatia. If warranted, the data would be

120

presented to the World Court in The Hague,
and Serbia would ask for the formation of a
tribunal to investigate the claims.
Both the Bosnian and Croatian governments
have denied any wrongdoing, and in a joint
statement, called the action “a thinly veiled
political ploy... [to] draw attention from the
blood on Serbia’s hands.”

The Bosnian Conflict

6 April 2004
Tuzla, Bosnia—Since the beginning of the
year, incidents between ethnic Serbs and government security forces in Bosnia have
become an increasing source of tension
between the Serbian and Bosnian governments. Ethnic Serbs demonstrating against a
lack of access to government jobs or health
care, as well as alleged abuses by the Bosnian
government’s internal security troops, have
increasingly been met by police and Bosnian
army troops in riot gear. Bosnian officials have
repeatedly charged that the demonstrations
are being orchestrated by Serbian agents,
although no firm evidence has been provided
for these accusations.
The Serbian government has denied any role
in the disturbances but has indicated that it
“cannot stand idly by as our brothers are
beaten in the streets.”
8 April 2004
Foggia, Italy—US intelligence sources
revealed today that Serbian forces have been
gathering along the borders with Bosnia and
Croatia for the past week. It is unclear whether
this is merely saber-rattling by Serbia, or
actual preparation for war.
Bosnian and Croatian forces have been put on
alert, but despite the efforts of successive
American presidents to increase their effectiveness, both are generally considered inferior to
the Serbian forces they are facing. American
troops in Italy and Germany have been put on
high alert and are said to be preparing for any
contingency, including direct intervention by
American ground troops in the former
Yugoslavia.
Administration officials have both publicly
and privately warned Serbian representatives
that a renewal of the conflict in Bosnia would
“not be acceptable” and would almost cer-

tainly lead to a direct confrontation with
American forces.
The Serbian government has denied that it is
preparing for war and has described the troop
deployments as a reasonable precaution
against a “spillover” of tensions from neighboring Bosnia and Croatia.
18 April 2004
Osijek, Croatia—Protests by ethnic Serbs
turned violent today as demonstrators
stormed government offices, looting and
burning before being scattered by security
forces backed up by Croatian army tanks.
Additionally, car bombs were detonated in a
crowded marketplace in Bijeljina, and in front
of a government office in Slavonska, injuring
dozens in these predominately ethnic Serb
towns.
When police and ambulances arrived to cordon off the areas and tend to the injured, they
were met by angry crowds demanding to be
“protected from these attacks” and threatening
“if you won’t protect us from this, perhaps we
should find someone who will.”
This marks the sixth straight day that bombs
have exploded in ethnically Serb towns, and
their toll is mounting. No person or organization has come forward to take credit for the
attacks.
20 April 2004
Sarajevo, Bosnia—Serbian tanks rolled
across the Bosnian and Croatian borders yesterday, in response to continuing terrorist
attacks on ethnic Serbs.
In an open radio broadcast, Serbian President
Biljana Plavsic declared that Serbian forces
were entering Bosnia and Croatia in order to
protect the lives of the endangered Serbian
minorities in both countries and would only

121

Chapter 7: Campaign Scenarios

remain as long as was necessary to guarantee
their safety and well-being.
Heavy fighting has been reported in some
areas as Serbian columns advanced across the
countryside, but in most cases, initial Bosnian
resistance has been swept aside. Croatian
forces have fared better, although they are also
reportedly giving ground to the advancing
Serbs.
21 April 2004
Zagreb, Croatia—Interpol claims to have captured three Serbian intelligence agents in Austria, who reportedly confessed to planting the
car bombs in Bijeljina and Slavonska at the
behest of the Serbian government. They also
supplied the names and descriptions of more
than 20 others, still in Bosnia and Croatia,
who they say have been engaged in similar
activities.
The Serbian government hotly denied the
charges, calling them “obvious lies.” It referred
to the supposed agents as “Croatian dupes”
and “a weak propaganda ploy that should be
obvious to all.”
However, these accusations have caught the
attention of the international community,
which has largely stood on the sidelines as this
new conflict has unfolded, despite American
efforts to organize new sanctions against Serbia and provide military aid to the Bosnians
and Croatians.
24 April 2004
Washington, DC—In a televised address last
evening, the President announced that Ameri-

122

can forces would be entering Bosnia and
Croatia to “help put an end to this bloody war
of aggression…perpetrated by the Serbian government against the people of Bosnia and
Croatia. We must now, once again, enter into a
conflict that we did not start, but because of
our own strong sense of moral duty and integrity, must end.”

Objectives
Allied objectives are to:
1. Establish air superiority over the battlefield
2. Halt the further advance of Serbian troops

into Bosnia and Croatia
3. Liberate Serbian-occupied territories
4. Continue to prosecute the war until the
Serbian government capitulates

Allied forces
American ground forces entered Bosnia and
Serbia via overland railroad routes and the
Adriatic coastline, joining the Bosnian and
Croatian forces already there. Despite American attempts to mold the Bosnian and Croatian armies into capable fighting forces
(including equipping them with American
equipment), the armies are generally regarded
as inferior to the Serbian army they face.
American air forces operate primarily out of
airbases in Italy, although the Italians have not
themselves committed forces to the conflict.
Likewise, neither have America’s other major
NATO allies. Neither Bosnia nor Croatia has
significant air forces.

The Bosnian Conflict

Allied forces in the Bosnian Conflict
Tanks
M1A2
APCs
M2
Artillery
M109

Air Defense
BSFV
IHAWK
Patriot
Shoulder Launched
• FIM-92 Stinger

MLRS

Aircraft
AH-64 Apache
UH-60 Blackhawk
A-10 Warthog
F-15 Eagle
F-16 Fighting Falcon
F-22 Raptor
E-3A AWACS
C-17 Globemaster III
B-52 Stratofortress

Enemy forces
Since the signing of the Dayton Accords in
1996, the Serbian military has spent its time
expanding and rearming to maintain its position as the pre-eminent military power among
the former Yugoslavian republics. Russia, who
has traditionally taken a great interest in the
affairs of other Slavic peoples such as the
Serbs, supplied them with surplus equipment
and military advisors, even during the SerbWest détente at the turn of the century.
The Serbian air force is moderately sized and
represents a good balance between air superiority and ground attack capabilities. MiG-23
Flogger, MiG-29 Fulcrum, and Su-25 Frogfoot
aircraft form the backbone of the Serbian air
force and are the most likely to be encountered. Also present is a small squadron of
MiG-31 Foxhound interceptors, whose powerful radar and long-range AA-9 Amos missiles
could present a significant threat to air
operations.
Serbia makes use of many mobile SAM systems, including the SA-13 Gopher and SA-15
Gauntlet systems. The most common longrange SAM system is certainly the SA-11
Gadfly.

123

Chapter 7: Campaign Scenarios

Enemy forces in the Bosnian Conflict
Tanks
T-72
T-80
APCs
BMP-2
BRDM-2
Artillery
2A61
2S19
Uragan

Air Defense
S60—57mm AAA
ZSU-23-4 Shika
SA-10 Gumble
SA-11 Gadfly
SA-12 Gladiator
SA-13 Gopher
SA-15 Gauntlet
Shoulder Launched
• SA-16 Gimlet
• SA-18 Grouse

Aircraft
Mi-24 Hind
MiG-23 Flogger
MiG-29 Fulcrum
MiG-31 Foxhound
Su-25 Frogfoot
Su-27 Flanker
An-12 Cub

Maps (ONCs and TPCs)

The Russo-Ukrainian War

The following is a complete list of ONCs and
TPCs needed to cover this theater:

History

• ONC F-2 (1:1,000,000)
• ONC F-3 (1:1,000,000)
and/or
•
•
•
•

TPC F-2B (1:500,000)
TPC F-2C (1:500,000)
TPC F-3A (1:500,000)
TPC F-3D (1:500,000)

These maps can be purchased from:
NOAA Distribution Division, N/ACC3
National Ocean Service
Riverdale, Maryland 20737-1199
Toll Free (in the US): 800-638-8972
Telephone: 301-436-8301
Fax: 301-436-6829
NOTE: See “Map disclaimer” on page iii.

124

5 January 2003
Kiev, Ukraine—In rescheduled elections, Oleksandr Moroz was elected governor of the eastern Ukrainian Oblast (state) of Sumska.
Moroz, 82, chairman of the Socialist Party of
Ukraine and former Chairman of the Supreme
Rada, ran a campaign stressing return to the
collective ideals of the disestablished USSR.
Western election observers, denied access to
election centers, say that rumors of voter fraud
and vote tampering, while unconfirmed,
appear to be valid. The results of national elections last June were thrown out when massive
fraud and corruption of the process were
revealed.
“The moral decay of the West has permeated
our country and soiled our ideals,” Moroz said
in a post-election statement issued at Socialist
Party headquarters in Sumy, the capital of
Sumska. “Their capitalistic infiltration of our
economy has brought with it the stain of sin
and the destruction of our ethnic culture. This

The Russo-Ukrainian War

election is a mandate to return our country to
the roots of its people.”
Sumska is one of eight Oblasts in eastern
Ukraine where ethnic Russians make up the
majority of the population. Though composing only 22 percent of the country’s total population, ethnic Russians held enormous power
under the old Soviet system. Together with
Communist strongholds in the Crimea and
Dometsk, they form “Little Russia,” and their
ambiguous loyalties have created concern in
the halls of the Supreme Rada in Kiev.

surably under the collective process of the
USSR. However, since gaining independence
in 1991, Ukraine became agriculturally selfsufficient in 1999 and began to export agricultural foodstuffs in 2001, mainly to the Balkans
and the Mideast. Moroz has been critical of
agricultural export out of the CIS rather than
“humanitarian transfer” of the crop excesses
to Russia.

31 March 2003
Sumy, Ukraine—Oleksandr Moroz, Governor
of Sumska, has called for the formation of a
regional alliance among the Russian majority
Oblasts of eastern Ukraine and the Crimea.
“The Dupes of Kiev continue to suckle at the
breast of the West while our people go hungry,” Moroz said at the Oblast Economic
Cooperation Council meeting in Symferopyl,
capital of the Crimea. The call for a regional
alliance has revived the fears of western and
central Ukrainians who, while moving toward
a centrist, capital-based government, have yet
to coalesce into a truly united group of states.
Andriy Pyziur, Professor of Eastern European
Studies at Georgetown University, believes
that Moroz’s reference to hunger actually
refers to the agricultural problems in Russia.
Moroz, swept into office two months ago on a
platform of reversion, has increasingly shown
his disdain for the central Ukrainian government and its free market economy and has
worked to strengthened ties with Russia.
While Russian agriculture has continued to
suffer from depressed harvests, outdated farming techniques, and gross mismanagement,
the Ukrainian agricultural sector has quickly
adopted Western technology and agricultural
techniques. Once known as the “Breadbasket
of Europe,” Ukrainian farms suffered immea-

125

Chapter 7: Campaign Scenarios

12 April 2003
Sumy, Ukraine—Today at a press conference,
the governors of the Ukrainian states known as
“Little Russia” announced the formation of the
Eastern Ukraine Democratic Alliance, “a cooperative association intended to advance economic, political, and social issues peculiar to
its member Oblasts.” It was also announced
that Oleksandr Moroz would function as acting Chairman until an election could be held.
The Ukrainian Supreme Rada quickly
denounced the EUDA as “a government within
a government” and called for its immediate
dissolution.
1 May 2003
Kiev, Ukraine— In a pre-dawn lightning
strike, Russian forces crossed the eastern border of the Ukraine today. Armored forces met

126

virtually no opposition as they moved across
the border and took up positions in key locations throughout eastern Ukraine. Ukrainian
forces appeared to be caught completely offguard and fell back in disarray before the
invading troops, although the Ukrainian Air
Force has been able to evacuate some aircraft
to bases west of the Dnepr River. No reports of
damage or casualties have been released.
Russian President Vladimir Zhirinovsky
issued a statement declaring the foray into
Ukraine was undertaken by “invitation” and
with the assistance of “cooperative forces”
loyal to the newly formed Eastern Ukraine
Democratic Alliance. Neither Moroz nor
EUDA spokespeople were available for comment. US Chief of Mission in Ukraine, William Miller, called the action “unprecedented,
perilous and abominable.” Both UN and

The Russo-Ukrainian War

NATO spokesmen said their organizations
would be meeting in emergency sessions
immediately. Presidential spokesperson Dylan
Rogers said that the US was “most disturbed”
by the action and called for the immediate
withdrawal of Russian forces from Ukraine.
He also reported that the President was
already meeting with national security advisors to discuss the American response to the
situation.
2 May 2003
Kiev, Ukraine—Ukrainian Armed Forces
trapped east of the Dnepr River rallied for
counterattacks today against Russian military
units. In violent clashes throughout the east,
Ukrainian forces fought to regain lost territory,
but reports indicate that they have met with
little success, and eyewitness reports describe
the large-scale withdrawal of Ukrainian forces
across the Dnepr River and the call-up of
reserve forces. Other reports depict valiant
efforts by the outnumbered Ukrainian Air
Force against increasing numbers of Russian
aircraft.
Both NATO and UN councils met in Executive
session today and condemned the Russian
invasion as a “crime against the free people of
Ukraine.” Further discussions outlining possible military options were underway.
2 May 2003
Washington, DC—The President, having met
with leaders of Congress and the Joint Chiefs
of Staff, has issued a stern warning to Russian
President Vladimir Zhirinovsky. “The people
of the free world cannot allow the tyranny of
oppression to rear its head again in Eastern
Europe…. The United States and our allies
will not allow the despicable acts of aggression taking place in the Ukraine to continue.”
Presidential spokesperson Dylan Rogers said
that contact with European allies, while not

resulting in any concrete military assistance,
indicated that they strongly supported US
efforts to support the Ukrainian government.
Pentagon sources indicate that US Army and
Air Force units have been put on alert both in
the US and Europe.
6 May 2003
Washington, DC—The President today
announced the deployment of US Army and
Air Force units to Ukraine. “At this very
moment, select elements of the United States
Army and Air Force are on the ground in
Ukraine to support the elected government
there. These forces are provided to assist
Ukrainian forces in the defense of their homeland.” Pentagon sources indicate that the US
forces consist primarily of armored ground
forces and a variety of aircraft. Unconfirmed
reports indicate that the newly introduced
F-22 air superiority fighter is among those
assets being deployed.

Objectives
Allied objectives are to:
1. Protect currently friendly airbases in the

Ukraine
2. Establish air superiority over the

Ukrainian battlefield
3. Support joint American/Ukrainian
ground forces
4. Conduct air operations against key
objectives to reduce Russian force
effectiveness
5. Continue operations until Russian forces
are pushed east of the Dnepr River

Allied forces
Aside from US forces, allied forces consist of
Ukrainian air and ground forces. No other

127

Chapter 7: Campaign Scenarios

allied forces are expected to participate in
these operations.
Long a part of the USSR, Ukraine forces use
armaments common to the Russian forces.
Because of this, great care must be taken to
positively identify targets prior to engagement
to prevent fratricide. Rules of Engagement
(ROE) will reflect this requirement.

American forces include ground and air forces
from European commands as well and
CONUS-based forces. The President, through
the Secretary of Defense and Joint Chiefs of
Staff, has authorized a force strength equal to
the required tasks and removed all nonnuclear restrictions concerning force structure.

US forces in the Russo-Ukrainian War
Tanks
M1A2

Air Defense
BSFV

Aircraft
AH-64 Apache

APCs
M2

IHAWK
Patriot

UH-60 Blackhawk
A-10 Warthog
F-15 Eagle
F-16 Fighting Falcon
F-22 Raptor
E-3A AWACS
C-17 Globemaster III
B-52 Stratofortress

Artillery
M109
MLRS

Shoulder Launched
• FIM-92 Stinger

Ukrainian forces in the Russo-Ukrainian War
Tanks
T-72
T-84 (Ukrainian built T-80
tank)
APCs
BMP-2
BDRM-2
Artillery
S19
Uragan

Air Defense
S60—57mm AAA
SA-10 Gumble
SA-12 Gladiator
SA-15 Gauntlet
SA-17 Grizzly
SA-19 Tunguska
Shoulder Launched
• SA-16 Gimlet
• SA-18 Grouse

Enemy forces
The armed forces of the former USSR have
undergone a near implosion since that nation

128

Aircraft
Mi-24 Hind
MiG-23 Flogger
MiG-29 Fulcrum
Su-25 Frogfoot
Su-27 Flanker
MiG-31 Foxhound
An-12 Cub
Tu-22M Backfire

dissolved in 1991. The once mighty military
machine is a shell of its former self, its formerly unified forces now diluted by their divi-

The Russo-Ukrainian War

sion among the 14 independent former Soviet
Republics. Despite this dilution however, the
Russian military still remains one of the
world’s most formidable forces.
The Russian air forces still retain some of the
most advanced combat aircraft in the world
today, and research has continued to produce
state-of-the-art innovations for the aircraft.
Among the combat aircraft “standards” are the
MiG-23 and MiG-29 as well as the Su-25 and
Su-27. Development of these and other aircraft have resulted in variants such as the
MiG-31, MiG1-42, Su-34, Su-35, and Su-37.
Though in limited production, these variants
provide a deadly addition to the Russian air
forces.
Russian ground combat forces underwent the
same debilitating reductions as the air forces.
As with the air forces, they continue to main-

tain their highly capable weapon systems and
can still field the largest attack force in Europe.
Maintaining their focus on armor as the backbone of their forces, Russian commands have
access to the some of the most modern
armored weapon systems in the world. Tanks
include the T-72, T-80s, and T-90s. Ground
weapons development, while not pursued as
aggressively as the air side, has continued to
march forward as Russia looks to establish
itself as the premier supplier of weapons on
the world market.
Russia continues to place emphasis on its air
defenses and has one of the world’s most
modern inventories. This inventory includes
the new SA-17 Grizzly and the SA-19 Tunguska in addition to the older systems. This
integrated force provides a formidable defense
against any aircraft.

Enemy forces in the Russo-Ukrainian War
Tanks
T-72
T-90
APCs
BMP-2
BRDM-2
Artillery
2A61
2S19
Uragan

Air Defense
S60—57mm AAA
SA-10 Gumble
SA-12 Gladiator
SA-15 Gauntlet
SA-17 Grizzly
SA-19 Tunguska
Shoulder Launched
• SA-16 Gimlet
• SA-18 Grouse

Aircraft
Mi-24 Hind
MiG-23 Flogger
MiG-29 Fulcrum
MiG-31 Foxhound
MiG1-42 Felix
Su-25 Frogfoot
Su-27 Flanker
Su-34 Fastback
Su-35 Flasher
Su-37 Freefall
A-50 Mainstay
An-12 Cub
Tu-22M Backfire

Maps (ONCs and TPCs)

• ONC E-3 (1:1,000,000)

The following is a complete list of ONCs and
TPCs needed to cover this theater:

and/or
• TPC E-3C (1:500,000)

129

Chapter 7: Campaign Scenarios

These maps can be purchased from:
NOAA Distribution Division, N/ACC3
National Ocean Service
Riverdale, Maryland 20737-1199

130

Toll Free (in the US): 800-638-8972
Telephone: 301-436-8301
Fax: 301-436-6829
NOTE: See “Map disclaimer” on page iii.

A Aircraft, Vehicle, and Weapon
Reference Data

This appendix lists statistics for the aircraft
and other military equipment appearing in
this simulation.

Aircraft data
US-Built aircraft

131

Appendix A: Aircraft, Vehicle, and Weapon Reference Data

UH-60 Black Hawk

AH-64 Apache

Crew

3 (+11 passengers)

Type

Helicopter gunship

Type

Utility helicopter

Max. Speed

162 mi/hr

Max. Speed

184 mi/hr

Max. Altitude

13,000 ft.

Max. Altitude

9000 ft.

Height

15.5 ft.

Height

16.1 ft.

Length

55.5 ft.

Length

61.8 ft.

Wingspan

45.8 ft.

Wingspan

51.2 ft.

Engines

2 x 1265 kW turboshafts

Engines

2 x 1151 kW turboshafts

Combat Range

253 mi

Combat Range

373 mi

Armament

30mm cannon with
1200 rounds

Armament

none

The AH-64 Apache is the US Army’s front-line
attack helicopter. Using Hellfire guided missiles in the anti-armor role, it has developed
into a premier multipurpose ground attack
platform whose capabilities have been highlighted in Operations Just Cause and Desert
Storm, as well as other peacekeeping deployments and operational exercises.

132

This replacement for the venerable UH-1 Iroquois (Huey) has now become the most
numerous helicopter in the US inventory.
Consistent with its origins as a utility helicopter, it has been adopted to transport, ASW,
ASUW, SAR, special operations, MedEvac, and
ELINT roles.

Aircraft data

F-15E Strike Eagle

A-10A Warthog

Crew

Type

Close air support aircraft

Type

Multirole combat aircraft

Max. Speed

425 mi/hr

Max. Speed

Mach 2.5

Max. Altitude

35,000 ft.

Max. Altitude

59,000 ft.

Height

14 ft.

Height

17.62 ft.

Length

50.9 ft.

Length

60.8 ft.

Wingspan

54.9 ft.

Wingspan

40.8 ft.

Engines

2 x 40.3 kN turbofans

Engines

Combat Range

290 mi (with 2 hour loiter)

2 x 79.2/129.4 kN turbofans

Combat Range

790 mi

Armament

20mm cannon with 512
rounds

Armament

30mm cannon with
1350 rounds

Entering service in 1976, the A-10 was the first
purpose-built American ground attack aircraft.
Although capable of carrying 16,000 lb. of
guided and unguided munitions, its real
charm lies in its seven-barreled, 30mm
GAU-8/A “Avenger” cannon, capable of killing
tanks from as far as five miles away. The A-10
combines simplicity, ruggedness, and lethality
in a single devastating package

The F-15 was the most capable air-superiority
fighter in the world when it entered service in
1976. It features excellent radar and avionics
for BVR (Beyond Visual Range) engagements
and surprising agility for dogfighting. The F-15
has since been developed into an excellent
multirole aircraft. By 2010, the F-22 will
replace the F-15 in the air superiority role,
although the Strike Eagle variant will retain its
front-line role.

133

Appendix A: Aircraft, Vehicle, and Weapon Reference Data

F-16C Fighting Falcon

F-22A Raptor

Crew

Type

Multirole combat aircraft

Type

Max. Speed

Mach 1.8

Air superiority fighter
with secondary ground
attack capability

Max. Altitude

52,500 ft.

Max. Speed

Mach 2.4

Height

15.9 ft.

Max. Altitude

60,000 ft.

Length

47 ft.

Height

15.7 ft.

Wingspan

31.3 ft.

Length

59.2 ft.

Engine

76.8/128.9 kN turbofan

Wingspan

42.4 ft.

Combat Range

850 mi

Engines

2 x 155 kN turbofans

Armament

20mm cannon with 511
rounds

Combat Range

Over 1500 miles

Armament

20mm cannon with 480
rounds

Originally conceived as a small, clear-weather
day fighter, the F-16 has developed over the
past 15 years into a multirole, adverseweather, day/night fighter. Renowned for its
agility and dogfighting capability, the F-16 has
been a popular export item, in service with 18
foreign countries and produced under license
in both Europe and Asia.

134

The F-22 is the first of the “next generation”
fighters, combining incredible performance
with low-observable technology to create an
aircraft capable of killing its opponents before
they even know it’s there. While other aircraft
were forced to sacrifice performance and mission capabilities in exchange for their stealthy
characteristics, the F-22 has been able to mold
the two together, greatly enhancing both. Able
to deploy both air-to-air as well as air-toground munitions, the F-22 will serve as the
backbone of the United States Air Force well
into the 21st century.

Aircraft data

E-3C Sentry

C-17 Globemaster III

Crew

Type

AWACS

Type

Heavy cargo transport

Max. Speed

530 mi/hr

Max. Speed

402 mi/hr

Max. Altitude

27,700 ft.

Max. Altitude

42,900 ft.

Height

39.8 ft.

Height

52.6 ft.

Length

145.9 ft.

Length

166 ft.

Wingspan

139 ft.

Wingspan

162 ft.

Engines

4 x 93.4 kN turbofans

Engines

4 x 181 kN turbofans

Combat Range

1,000 mi

Combat Range

3,105 mi

Armament

none

Armament

none

As an AWACS aircraft, the E-3C Sentry provides American and Allied commanders with
the all-weather surveillance, command, control, communication, and coordination capabilities in modern air war. Built on a modified
Boeing 707 commercial airframe, the most
important feature of the Sentry is its 30-foot
diameter, 6-foot thick rotating radome
mounted above the fuselage, which allows it
to detect, identify, and track targets at a range
of more than 200 miles.

Entering service in 1993, the C-17 is capable
of transporting a wide variety of loads (including AH-64 helicopters and the M1 main battle
tank) to main operating bases as well as to
austere airfields near the front line.

135

Appendix A: Aircraft, Vehicle, and Weapon Reference Data

B-52H Stratofortress

Russian-Built aircraft
Mi-24E Hind

Crew

Type

Heavy bomber

Max. Speed

630 mi/hr

Max. Altitude

52,200 ft.

Height

38.8 ft.

Length

152 ft.

Wingspan

176.5 ft.

Engines

8 x 75.6 kN turbofans

Combat Range

4,800 mi

Armament

20mm cannon with
1200 rounds (tail)

Originally delivered to SAC in 1959 as a strategic nuclear bomber, most Big Ugly Flying
“Fellas” (BUFFs) are older than the crews that
fly them. Able to carry a huge load of guided,
unguided, conventional, and nuclear weapons over vast distances, the B-52 is the classic
heavy bomber, and it will remain in service
into the 21st century.

136

Crew

2 (+8 passengers)

Type

Helicopter gunship

Max. Speed

208 mi/hr

Max. Altitude

14,000 ft.

Height

20.3 ft.

Length

66.8 ft.

Wingspan

54.1 ft.

Engines

2 x 1633 kW turboshafts

Combat Range

2,240 mi

Armament

12.7mm machine gun
(undernose turret)

Since its introduction in the early 1970s, the
Mi-24 Hind has been one of the most feared
helicopter gunships in the world. It has been
described as a flying tank because of its large
size and heavy weapons load. While its
stepped, tandem crew seating and its employment of stub-wings to increase weapon hardpoints are typical of helicopter gunship
arrangement, the Hind’s ability to transport up
to eight troops to the front lines and then
assist them in a fire support role is unique.

Aircraft data

MiG-23 Flogger

MiG-29 Fulcrum

Crew

Type

Fighter/interceptor

Type

Max. Speed

Mach 2.35

Air superiority fighter
with secondary ground
attack capability

Max. Altitude

58,000 ft.

Max. Speed

Mach 2.3

Height

15.1 ft.

Max. Altitude

56,000 ft.

Length

49 ft.

Height

14.8 ft.

Wingspan

43.7 ft.

Length

54.2 ft.

Engine

83.8/127.4 kN turbojet

Wingspan

35.6 ft.

Combat Range

1,211 mi

Engines

Armament

23mm cannon with 200
rounds

2 x 49.4/81.4 kN turbofans

Combat Range

1304 mi

Armament

30mm cannon with 150
rounds

Introduced in 1969, the Flogger uses variable
geometry wings (“swing wings”) to enhance
its performance. In addition to this design
innovation, it was also the first Soviet aircraft
with a BVR missile capability as well as longrange navigation systems that enable it to
operate independently of ground control in
some situations. Although it has a high “dash”
speed, it suffers from relatively poor maneuvering performance and is clearly now a
second-rate fighter.

First fielded in 1985 after a long development
program, the Fulcrum replaced the MiG-21,
MiG-23, Su-15, and Su-17 in front-line units.
Despite its relatively short range, the MiG-29
is a premier tactical fighter with excellent performance and maneuverability. MiG-29 pilots
can also take advantage of a helmet-mounted
target designation system to effectively engage
“off boresight” aircraft.

137

Appendix A: Aircraft, Vehicle, and Weapon Reference Data

MiG-31 Foxhound

MiG-1-42 Felix

Crew

Type

Interceptor

Type

Low-observable, multirole combat aircraft

Max. Speed

Max. Altitude

Max. Speed @ SL Mach 1.23
Max. Speed @
altitude

Mach 2.83

Max. Altitude

64,000 ft.

Height

19.2 ft.

Length

71 ft.

Wingspan

42.1 ft.

Engines

2 x 151.9 kN turbofans

Combat Range

745 mi

Armament

23mm cannon with 260
rounds

Derived from the MiG-25 Foxbat, the MiG-31
provides enhanced capabilities against lowlevel threats and was intended to guard the
Soviet Union’s long borders. Important
changes include a strengthened air frame
(allowing supersonic performance at low altitude) and an electronically scanned phased
array radar (the first of its type in service) that
enables the MiG-31 to track ten targets simultaneously in excess of 200 km. The Foxhound’s
primary armament is the AA-9 Amos long
range air-to-air missile.

138

Also known as MFI (mnogofunktsionalnyy
istrebityel—multipurpose fighter), the
MiG-1-42 is similar to the F-22 in many ways.
Just as stealth technology has been incorporated in the design of the F-22 from the start,
so has it been in the MiG-1-42, although not
to as great an extent. Similarly, the MiG-1-42
has thrust-vectoring engine nozzles and uses
internal weapon stowage. Also, while it has a
ground attack capability, it is primarily an air
superiority fighter. All of these features combine to make it a worthy adversary of the F-22.

Aircraft data

Su-25 Frogfoot

Su-27 Flanker

Crew

Type

Close air support aircraft

Type

Multirole combat aircraft

Max. Speed

605 mi/hr

Max. Speed

Mach 2.35

Max. Altitude

21,900 ft.

Max. Altitude

56,000 ft.

Height

15 ft.

Height

18.6 ft.

Length

48.6 ft.

Length

68.7 ft.

Wingspan

44.9 ft.

Wingspan

44.9 ft.

Engines

2 x 44.18 kN turbojets

Engines

Combat Range

465 mi

2 x 74.5/122.6 kN turbofans

Armament

30mm cannon with 250
rounds

Combat Range

931 mi

Armament

30mm cannon with 149
rounds

Fulfilling the same close air support role as the
A-10, the Su-25 embodies many of the same
attributes. The Frogfoot—a relatively slow,
heavily armored, twin-engine, and single-seat
ground attack aircraft—is intended to loiter
over the battlefield and search for targets. Survivability and payload are of paramount
importance, and both of these attributes have
been tested in Afghanistan and Chechnya.
With its full scale introduction in 1984, the
Su-25 became the primary Soviet close air support aircraft.

Originally designed as a deep penetration
fighter/interceptor to surpass the F-15, the
Su-27 has developed into what some consider
to be the most capable multirole aircraft in the
world. Its incredible agility (as exemplified by
the Cobra maneuver), large payload (up to ten
air-to-air missiles), and off-boresight targeting
ability (via a helmet-mounted targeting system) make the Flanker a formidable
opponent.

139

Appendix A: Aircraft, Vehicle, and Weapon Reference Data

Su-34 Fastback

Su-35 Flasher

Crew

Type

Theater bomber

Type

Multirole combat aircraft

Max. Speed

Mach 1.8

Max. Speed @ SL Mach 1.15

Max. Altitude

Mach 2.35

Height

Max. Speed @
altitude

Length

Max. Altitude

56,000 ft.

Wingspan

Height

19.9 ft.

Engines

2 x 137.3 kN turbofans

Length

69.5 ft.

Combat Range

2,485 mi

Wingspan

46.9 ft.

Armament

30mm cannon with 149
rounds

Engines

2 x 137.7 kN turbofans

Combat Range

2,485 mi

Armament

30mm cannon with 149
rounds

Unofficially nicknamed “Platypus” by its
crews (due to its wide, flat nose), the Su-34 is a
member of the Su-27 family. Major design
modifications include a redesigned forward
fuselage to accommodate side-by-side seating
for the pilot and copilot, a galley and toilet
behind the cockpit, and an extended tailboom
housing a rear-facing radar. The Su-34 also carries specially modified, rear-firing AA-11 missiles to be used in self-defense.

140

Formerly known as the Su-27M, the Su-35 is
an advanced development of the highly successful Su-27. The Su-35 features more powerful engines, improved radar and avionics,
integral ECM pods, two-dimensional thrust
vectoring, and a rear-facing radar similar to
that in the Su-34. Also, like the Su-34, the
Su-35 can carry specially modified, rear-firing
AA-11 missiles in addition to more conventional munitions.

Aircraft data

Su-37 Freefall

A-50 Mainstay

Crew

Type

Multirole combat aircraft

Type

AWACS

Max. Speed @ SL Mach 1.15

Max. Speed

530 mi/hr

Max. Speed @
altitude

Mach 2.35

Max. Altitude

48,500 ft.

Height

46.2 ft.

Max. Altitude

58,800 ft.

Length

145.8 ft.

Height

20 ft.

Wingspan

158 ft.

Length

69.5 ft.

Engines

4 x 117.7 kN turbofans

Wingspan

46 ft.

Combat Range

4,534 mi

Engines

2 x 142.2 kN turbofans

Armament

none

Combat Range

2,050 mi

Armament

30mm cannon with 149
rounds

The Su-37 is a further evolution of the Su-35
Flasher and has the single-seat, multirole, allweather air superiority role of its predecessor.
However, the Freefall incorporates important
improvements in avionics and maneuvering
capability by taking advantage of the first
three-dimensional thrust-vectoring system in a
serial production aircraft.

A derivative of the Il-76 transport, the A-50
Mainstay has become the primary Russian
AWACS aircraft since its introduction in 1984.
With its dorsally-mounted, rotating radome,
the Mainstay resembles other AWACS aircraft,
such as the American E-3C Sentry, although its
performance is generally inferior. In their battle management role, AWACS aircraft are a
central component of a coordinated air
defense, and as such, are a high-value target.

141

Appendix A: Aircraft, Vehicle, and Weapon Reference Data

An-12 Cub

Tu-22M Backfire

Crew

Type

Transport

Type

Medium bomber

Max. Speed

480 mi/hr

Max. Speed

Mach 1.88

Max. Altitude

31,900 ft.

Max. Altitude

41,600 ft.

Height

32.9 ft.

Height

34.6 ft.

Length

103.6 ft.

Length

132.9 ft.

Wingspan

118.9 ft.

Wingspan

107.3 ft.

Engines

4 x 2942 kW turboprops

Engines

2 x 245.2 kN turbofans

Combat Range

2,236 mi

Combat Range

1,149 mi

Armament

2 x 23mm cannon (tail)

Armament

2 x 23mm cannon (tail)

An outgrowth of the An-8 Camp transport, the
An-12 Cub entered Soviet service in 1959. A
simple workhorse aircraft, the Cub has since
been exported to numerous client states, and a
reverse-engineered version is still in production in China under the designation Y-8.

142

A long-range, variable-geometry medium
bomber for low-level penetration of enemy air
defenses, the Backfire is in many ways similar
to the USAF B-1B Lancer. A versatile aircraft, it
is capable of nuclear and conventional strikes
as well as reconnaissance and maritime attack
with missiles, bombs, and mines. The Backfire
is most commonly armed with AS-16 Kickback ground attack missiles, providing it with
a standoff attack capability that further
enhances its survivability.

Anti-Aircraft vehicle data

Anti-Aircraft vehicle
data
US-Built anti-aircraft vehicles

sensors and receiving all target information
from other battery resources. A typical IHAWK
battery includes a command post, an acquisition radar, a tracking radar, and three IHAWK
launchers.

Bradley Stinger Fighting Vehicle (BSFV)

Patriot Launch Platform (M901 Launcher)

Type

Mobile SAM system

Type

Static SAM system

Crew

Armor

Medium

Armor

None

Armament

25mm cannon, 7.62mm
MG, 8xStinger

Armament

4xPatriot

The BSFV accompanies friendly forces and
provides them with local, low-level air
defense. Originally conceived as a standard
M2 Bradley IFV with a two-man Stinger air
defense team that could dismount to engage
air threats, the BSFV has evolved into a fully
integrated mobile SAM system based on the
Bradley chassis. However, it contains numerous modifications that enable the crew to
identify and engage air threats without leaving
the vehicle.
Improved HAWK Launch Platform
(IHAWK)—M192 Launcher
Type

Static SAM system

Crew

Armor

None

Armament

3xIHAWK

This successor to the venerable HAWK missile
series is the current state-of-the-art American
SAM system, including both Anti-Tactical Missile (ATM) as well as traditional anti-aircraft
capabilities. Its configuration is similar to the
IHAWK’s—a towed missile rack that gets all of
its information from external sources—and
like any other towed system, lacks any real tactical mobility. Because of this, Patriot systems
tend to be clustered around high-value fixed
positions and do not operate in direct support
of troops on the frontline.
Man-portable missiles
The Stinger missile itself is considered by
many to be the best man-portable SAM in the
world, and it has proven its worth in many
conflicts, most notably in the hands of Mujahedin soldiers during the Soviet occupation of
Afghanistan.

First entering service with the US Army in
1960, the HAWK (Homing All the Way Killer)
SAM system has gone through so many
improvement programs that little of the original systems remain in the current-generation
IHAWK. The M192 Launcher itself is little
more than a towed IHAWK rack, lacking any

143

Appendix A: Aircraft, Vehicle, and Weapon Reference Data

Russian-Built anti-aircraft
vehicles

SA-10 Grumble
Crew

S-60 57mm Anti-Aircraft Artillery (AAA)

Armor

None

Type

Towed AAA system

Armament

4xSA10 missiles

Crew

Armor

None

Armament

1x57mm gun

Originally introduced in 1950 as a divisionlevel air defense asset for the Red Army, the
S-60 was replaced in the mid-1970s by the
SA-8 missile system as air defense roles were
taken over by SAMs. Despite using old technology, AAA can still play a role on the modern battlefield, especially when used in
conjunction with radar fire-control equipment. Today, these “flak” guns are found
almost exclusively in third-world armies, surrounding important, stationary targets.
ZSU-23-4 Shilka
Type

Mobile AAA system

Crew

Armor

Light

Armament

4x23mm cannon

Replaced in Russian combat units by the SA-19
system, the Shilka is used by many countries
and has a guaranteed long service life due to
its simplicity, ruggedness, and high firepower.
An excellent point defense weapon, the Shilka
can fire as many as 4,000 rounds per minute,
with predictable effects on anything it hits.
SA-10 Grumble
Type

144

Mobile SAM system

Introduced in 1980 in response to American
advances in cruise missile technology, the
SA-10 missile system was able to hit targets as
low as 25 m while still retaining the ability to
intercept aircraft at much higher altitudes. The
upgraded SA-10c missile now allows the system to engage targets as low as 10 m in altitude. An all-weather system, the SA-10 can
engage up to six targets simultaneously at all
altitudes, including ballistic missiles. Grumble
systems, with their long range and large warheads, are often deployed to defend high-value
targets and areas.
SA-11 Gadfly
Type

Mobile SAM system

Crew

n/a

Armor

Light

Armament

4xSA-11 missiles

The SA-11 Gadfly is a medium-range air
defense system for engaging targets at all altitudes. A typical SA-11 battery contains a command post, a target acquisition radar (TAR),
and six SA-11 self-propelled mounts (SPM),
and such a formation would be found near
high-value targets. The SA-11 SPM can also
operate independently of other vehicles, using
its own integral radar to detect and track targets. The SA-11 Gadfly is being replaced by the

Anti-Aircraft vehicle data

SA-17 Grizzly in many Russian and ex-Soviet
units.

guided and instead uses an all-aspect IR guidance scheme to track its targets.

SA-12a Gladiator

SA-15 Gauntlet

Type

Mobile SAM system

Type

Mobile SAM system

Crew

n/a

Crew

Armor

None

Armor

Light

Armament

4xSA-12

Armament

8xSA-15

The SA-12 system became operational in the
mid-1980s and was the world’s first operational Anti-Tactical Ballistic Missile (ATBM)
system. The SA-12a is a dual-role system, capable of engaging aircraft as well as tactical ballistic missiles. Naturally, compromises must
be made when designing such a system, with
the result being that the SA-12a cannot engage
targets below 250 m (900 ft.) altitude. SA-12
batteries are normally assigned to protect
important targets such as airfields and command centers because of their long range and
high lethality.

SA-17 Grizzly

SA-13 Gopher

Type

Mobile SAM system

Crew

n/a

Armor

Light

Armament

4xSA-17

Type

Mobile SAM system

Crew

Armor

Light

Armament

4xSA-13

The SA-13 Gopher is a short-range, mobile
SAM system that accompanies advancing
forces and provide them with local air
defense. Although often paired with Dog Ear
radar vehicles, the SA-13 missile is not radar

An evolution of the Russian Navy’s Kynshal air
defense system, this division-level mediumrange SAM uses the same chassis as the SA-19
Tunguska. However, to provide the fastest
reaction time to targets in any direction, the
missiles are stored and launched vertically
from a magazine within the turret and hull of
the vehicle. Although this general configuration has been used in other Russian SAM systems, this is the first time the missiles have
been stored and launched internally.

One of the newest air defense systems in the
Russian arsenal, the Grizzly was first used by
the Russian Army in 1995. The SA-17 uses a
configuration similar to the SA-11 Gadfly that
it is intended to replace, but it improves upon
its predecessor in all respects.
SA-19 Tunguska
Type

Mobile SAM/AAA system

Crew

145

Appendix A: Aircraft, Vehicle, and Weapon Reference Data

Armor

Light

Ground combat vehicle
data

Armament

2x30mm cannon,
8xSA-19 missiles

US-built ground combat vehicles

SA-19 Tunguska

The Tunguska is a short-range, integrated air
defense system carrying a pair of 30 mm cannon as well as eight SA-19 missiles. These missiles are IR-guided, with a maximum effective
range of approximately 8 km. Target acquisition is handled by a “Hot Shot” radar
mounted on the turret roof, and target tracking by a separate system on the front of the
turret. In addition, optical sights are provided
for use in high-ECM environments.
Man-portable missiles
The SA-16 and SA-18 missiles are all-aspect, IR
SAMs that are similar to the Stinger in many
respects. The missiles themselves come in a
disposable fiberglass launch tubes that must
be attached to grip stocks to be launched. Targets are acquired and tracked visually by the
gunner prior to launch.

M1A2 Abrams
Class

Main Battle Tank (MBT)

Crew

Weight

125,740 lb

Max. Speed Road 41 mi/hr
Max. Speed
Country

30 mi/hr

Main Armament

120mm smoothbore gun

Although its early design and development
was marred by controversy, the M1 has developed into arguably the best tank in the
world—a formidable blend of protection,
mobility, and firepower unequaled on the battlefield. Its Chobham/depleted uranium mesh
armor is highly resistant to all types of munitions; its gas turbine engine, admittedly a gas
guzzler, provides it with the speed and mobility of much lighter tanks; and its 120mm
smoothbore Rhinemetall gun is capable of
defeating the armor of any opponent it will
meet on the battlefield.
M2A2 Bradley
Class

Infantry Fighting Vehicle
(IFV)

Crew

3+6

Weight

66,000 lb

Max. Speed Road 41 mi/hr
Max. Speed
Country

146

30 mi/hr (water speed
4.5 mi/hr)

Ground combat vehicle data

M2A2 Bradley
Main Armament

25mm chain gun

The M2A2 Bradley provides considerable
armor protection for an IFV (including
optional reactive armor) while still retaining
enough speed and mobility to keep pace with
the fast-moving M1A2s it is accompanying. Its
25mm chain gun can be elevated up to 60
degrees to allow fire at slow moving aircraft
and helicopters, and it has an effective range
of 2.5 km against both air and ground targets.
Advanced targeting and stabilization systems,
similar to those on the M1A2, even allow it to
fire extremely accurately while on the move.
High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled
Vehicle (HMMWV)
Class

Troop transport/reconnaissance vehicle

Crew

Weight

4,950 lb (payload—
3,520 lb)

Heavy Expanded Mobility Tactical Truck
(HEMTT)
Class

Troop transport/general
utility

Crew

Weight

(payload—22,000 lb)

Max. Speed Road 55 mi/hr
Max. Speed
Country

40 mi/hr

Main Armament

None

The HEMTT provides heavy transport capability for the resupply of combat vehicles and
weapons systems. HEMTT variants include
fuel carrier and wrecker versions in addition to
the original cargo carrier system.
155mm M109A6 Paladin Self-Propelled
Howitzer (SPH)
Class

Artillery

Crew

Max. Speed Road 65 mi/hr

Weight

63,600 lb

Max. Speed
Country

48 mi/hr

Max. Speed Road 40 mi/hr

None

Max. Speed
Country

30 mi/hr

Main Armament

155mm Howitzer

The US Army’s basic utility/transport vehicle
and replacement for the Willis Jeep of WW II
fame. The HMMWV has been adapted for
reconnaissance, anti-air, and anti-tank roles,
among others.

This latest version of the venerable M109 family is a typical SPH with a turret-mounted high
caliber gun capable of a high angle of elevation (75 degrees) as well an internal crew
compartment and ammunition stowage. It
integrates a slew of enhancements, including
an Automatic Fire Control System (AFCS),
similar to that used in the M1 MBT series, and
upgraded ballistic fire control computers. The
Paladin has a maximum range of up to 30 km

147

Appendix A: Aircraft, Vehicle, and Weapon Reference Data

and can fire up to four rounds per minute for
extended periods of time.

Ukrainian-built ground combat
vehicles

227mm Multiple Launch Rocket System
(MLRS)

T-84

Class

Artillery

Crew

Weight

55,440 lb

Max. Speed Road 40 mi/hr
Max. Speed
Country

30 mi/hr

Main Armament

227mm rockets

The MLRS is a typical multiple rocket
launcher, with an armored cab to the front
and traversable rocket pods to the rear. Its
chassis is based on the M2 Bradley IFV,
although it has been extended to accommodate the larger MLRS’s weight and length. The
MLRS carries two rocket pods of six rockets
each and can hit targets up to 45 km away.
Available rocket warheads include blast-fragmentation bomblets and anti-tank mines. The
MLRS is currently in service with a dozen
countries.

Class

Main Battle Tank (MBT)

Crew

Weight

101,200 lb

Max. Speed Road 37 mi/hr
Max. Speed
Country

25 mi/hr

Main Armament

125mm smoothbore gun

The Ukrainian version of the T-80 MBT, the
T-84 includes enhanced armor (including
reactive armor) and the capability to fire both
standard munitions and AT-11 Sniper infrared
missiles from its main gun. The T-84 uses a
fuel-efficient diesel engine, offering an
extended range of operation, but at the cost of
reduced speed when compared to the T-80.

Russian-built ground combat
vehicles
T-72
Class

Main Battle Tank (MBT)

Crew

Weight

97,900 lb

Max. Speed Road 37 mi/hr
Max. Speed
Country

26 mi/hr

Main Armament

125mm smoothbore gun

A typical Soviet tank, the T-72 is relatively light
in weight (compared to contemporary Western
tanks) and features a ballistically rounded tur-

148

Ground combat vehicle data

ret, offering excellent protection for its thickness and weight. Because the turret is so small,
the T-72 makes use of an auto-loader rather
than having a crew member perform that task.
Unfortunately, this auto-loader has a reputation for snagging crew members’ clothing and
attempting to load their arms into the barrel.
T-80

eration explosive reactive armor (ERA) for better protection against HEAT and APFSDS
weapons.
BMP-2
Class

Infantry Fighting Vehicle
(IFV)

Crew

3+6
31,460 lb

Class

Main Battle Tank (MBT)

Weight

Crew

Max. Speed Road 40 mi/hr

Weight

101,200 lb

Max. Speed
Country

30 mi/hr (water speed
4.5 mi/hr)

Main Armament

30mm gun

Max. Speed Road 43 mi/hr
Max. Speed
Country

30 mi/hr

Main Armament

125mm smoothbore gun

The BMP-2 offers increased armor protection
over the BMP-1 and mounts a 30mm gun. In
addition to its main armament, the BMP-2
carries an AT-5 Spandrel anti-tank missile in a
traversable roof mount. Some BMP crews also
carry SA-16/18 shoulder-launched SAMs for
local air defense against low-level targets.

The T-80 retains the same basic platform and
low silhouette that characterizes Soviet tanks.
The largest difference between the T-80 and its
predecessors is that the T-80 was the first
Soviet tank to be powered by a gas turbine
engine, similar to the American M1 series.

BRDM-2

T-90

Class

Amphibious scout car

Crew

Weight

15,400 lb

Class

Main Battle Tank (MBT)

Crew

Weight

102,300 lb

Max. Speed Road 62 mi/hr

Max. Speed Road 37 mi/hr

Max. Speed
Country

43 mi/hr (water speed
6.2 mi/hr)

Max. Speed
Country

26 mi/hr

Main Armament

14.5mm machine gun

Main Armament

125mm smoothbore gun

Developed from late-model T-72s, the T-90
offers a host of improvements, including the
Shtora-1 infrared jammer, intended to defeat
incoming IR-guided missiles, and second-gen-

With its light armament and armor, this vehicle uses its excellent speed to lead the main
formation in the reconnaissance role. Former
Soviet Tank and Motorized Rifle Divisions
were issued 28 BRDM-2s, allotted to various

149

Appendix A: Aircraft, Vehicle, and Weapon Reference Data

battalions and regiments, to carry out reconnaissance duties.

152mm 2S19 Self-Propelled Howitzer (SPH)
Class

Artillery

Truck (ARS-12)

Crew

Weight

92,400 lb

Class

Troop transport/general
utility

Crew

Weight

Max. Speed Road Max. Speed
Country

Main Armament

None

A basic utility/transport vehicle representative
of an entire class of cargo carriers.
152mm 2A61 Towed Howitzer

Max. Speed Road 37 mi/hr
Max. Speed
Country

26 mi/hr

Main Armament

152mm Howitzer

Based on the T-80 tank chassis, the 2S19 can
provide battlefield support for front line units
up to 24 km away with its formidable 152mm
gun. In addition to more conventional munitions, the 2S19 can also fire the Krasnopol
guided round, which uses inertial guidance
and semiactive laser homing to hit targets illuminated by forward observers.

Class

Artillery

Crew

220mm BM9P140 Uragan Multiple Rocket
Launcher (MRL)

Weight

15,400 lb

Class

Artillery

Max. Speed Road -

Crew

Max. Speed
Country

Weight

44,000 lb

Main Armament

152mm Howitzer

Max. Speed Road 40 mi/hr

A lightweight towed Howitzer partially based
on the D-30. The 2A61 is capable of firing up
to eight rounds per minute and has a maximum range of 24 km.

150

Max. Speed
Country

28 mi/hr

Main Armament

220mm rockets

With a maximum range of 35 km, the Uragan
can saturate areas with up to 16 rockets
equipped with high explosive, bomblet, antitank, or anti-personnel mine warheads. A full
salvo of 16 rockets takes 20 seconds to fire and
has an area of effect between 20,000 and
460,000 m2, depending on the type of warhead used.

Weapons data

Weapons data
US-built air-to-air weapons
AIM-120 Advanced Medium-Range Air-to-Air
Missile (AMRAAM)

(UK), and Aspide (Italy) missile families.
Recent developments have included
enhanced capabilities in heavy ECM environments, improved discrimination of low-level
targets, and the addition of a data link similar
to that in the AIM-120 AMRAAM.

Guidance

Active radar

AIM-9M/X Sidewinder missile

Weight

345 lb

Guidance

Warhead

48.4 lb HE directed fragmentation

Weight

191 lb / 185 lb

Warhead

25 lb HE blast/fragmentation

Max. Range

5 mi

Min. Range

0.3 mi

Max. Range

31 mi

Min. Range

4.4 mi

The AIM-120 AMRAAM development program began in 1975. Designated as the successor to the AIM-7 Sparrow, the AIM-120A
entered service in 1991. An advanced version,
the AIM-120C, with an improved active radar
seeking head and a compressed carriage that
allows internal stowage by the F-22, entered
service in 1993. The F-22 can hold up to six
AIM-120Cs in its central internal weapons
bay.
AIM-7P Sparrow missile

The AIM-9 development program began in the
late 1940s, with the first operational flight of
the AIM-9B in 1953. Considerable enhancements have been made throughout the years,
with the most recent addition of enhanced
flare rejection circuitry in the AIM-9M. The
AIM-9X, expected to enter service around the
year 2000, will be significantly more capable
than its most advanced predecessors. It will
enable over-the-shoulder target designation in
conjunction with helmet-mounted target designation systems now in development. Normally, the F-22 carries two AIM-9M/X missiles,
one in each side bay, although more could be
carried in the central weapons bay and on
external hardpoints.

Guidance

Semiactive radar homing
(SARH)

Weight

506 lb

Warhead

85.8 lb HE blast/fragmentation

Max. Range

28 mi

US-built air-to-ground weapons

Min. Range

0.8 mi

This section details US-built air-to-ground
weapons that can be carried by your F-22. No
comparable section for Russian built air-toground weapons is available because those

A venerable BVR missile, the Sparrow has
gone through numerous versions since it
entered service in 1956 and has served as the
template for the Sea Sparrow (US), Sky Flash

151

Appendix A: Aircraft, Vehicle, and Weapon Reference Data

weapons do not have a direct impact on you
or your aircraft.

AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW)
Targets

General purpose

Mark-82 bomb

Guidance

INS/GPS

Targets

General purpose

Weight

1,065 lb

Guidance

Unguided

Warhead

Weight

530 lb

185 lb (BLU-111 variant
of Mark-82 unitary
warhead)

Warhead

196 lb

Max. Range

19 mi

Mark-83 bomb
Targets

General purpose

Guidance

Unguided

Weight

983 lb

Warhead

444 lb

Mark-84 bomb
Targets

General purpose

Guidance

Unguided

Weight

1,966 lb

Warhead

942 lb

The Mark 80 family of low drag, general purpose bombs has become the standard for the
US armed forces and many other countries.
Although they have been steadily improved
since their introduction in the 1950s, these
bombs have generally undergone minor modifications to fuses and filling, not significant
design changes. They have also served as the
basis for many other munitions, such as the
AGM-62 Walleye, the Paveway series of laserguided bombs, and the AGM-154 JSOW.

Having evolved from Advanced Bomb Family
studies by the US Navy and Air Force in the
late 1980s, the JSOW is an unpowered glide
bomb fitted with folding wings that deploy
after release. These wings greatly extend the
JSOW’s range, allowing it to be launched from
beyond the range of many air defenses. Guidance is by a combination of internal inertial
navigation system (INS) and satellite-based
Global Positioning System (GPS), improving
accuracy and increasing resistance to jamming.
Because of the bomb’s large size, the F-22 can
carry the AGM-154 JSOW only externally.
AGM-88 High Speed Anti-Radar Missile
(HARM)
Targets

Radar-emitting
structures or vehicles

Guidance

Passive radar/INS

Weight

794 lb

Warhead

145 lb

Max. Range

15 mi

Min. Range

3 mi

Max. Speed

Mach 3

Successor to the AGM-45 Shrike and AGM-78
Standard, the AGM-88 HARM is an anti-radar
missile used to attack opposing air defenses,

152

Weapons data

most often as part of Suppression of Enemy
Air Defenses (SEAD) missions. The HARM can
be launched with or without a valid target. If it
has a target, it uses its passive radar tracking
capabilities to guide itself to the target, and if
the target shuts off its radar while the HARM is
in flight, the HARM engages its backup inertial
navigation system (INS) and guides itself to its
target’s last known position.

GBU 24A/B Paveway bomb
Targets

Hardened targets such as
bunkers and hardened
hangers

Guidance

Passive laser

Weight

1980 lb

Warhead

528 lb (BLU 109/B penetration warhead for hardened targets)

GBU-12B Paveway bomb
Targets

General purpose

Guidance

Passive laser

Weight

495 lb

Warhead

196 lb (Mark 82 general
purpose unitary
warhead)

GBU 16B Paveway bomb
Targets

General purpose

Guidance

Passive laser

Weight

999 lb

Warhead

444 lb (Mark 83 general
purpose unitary
warhead)

GBU 24A Paveway bomb
Targets

General purpose

Guidance

Passive laser

Weight

1,980 lb

Warhead

942 lb (Mark 84 general
purpose unitary
warhead)

An outgrowth of the Mark 80 series of general
purpose bombs, Paveway bombs reflect a
modular design concept. They are Mark 80
bombs modified by the addition of bolt-on
subassemblies. To convert a Mark 80 bomb
into a GBU, a laser guidance unit is added to
the nose, and a stabilizing tail unit is added to
the rear. The laser guidance unit detects the
laser designation spot and guides the bomb
towards it by manipulating its control surfaces. The tail assembly plays no role in bomb
guidance. Target designation can be by the
parent aircraft, another airborne designator, or
ground-based systems.
GBU-31A Joint Direct Attack Munition
(JDAM)
Targets

General purpose

Guidance

INS/GPS

Weight

1980 lb

Warhead

942 lb (Mark 84 general
purpose unitary
warhead)

153

Appendix A: Aircraft, Vehicle, and Weapon Reference Data

GBU-31A/B JDAM
Targets

Hardened targets such as
bunkers and hardened
hangers

Guidance

INS/GPS

Weight

1980 lb

Warhead

528 lb (BLU 109/B penetration warhead for hardened targets)

GBU-32 JDAM
Targets

General purpose

Guidance

INS/GPS

Weight

999 lb

Warhead

444 lb (Mark 83 general
purpose unitary
warhead)

154

Another product of the Advanced Bomb Family studies, the JDAM system consists of bolton subassemblies that can be added to standard Mark 84, BLU-109B, and Mark 83 bombs
to increase their accuracy. The tail assembly
consists of the GPS and INS guidance units as
well as the control surfaces. It is this assembly
that guides the weapon to its target after
release. The nose unit is a set of stabilizing fins
and plays no role in weapon guidance.
Because of the bombs’ size, the F-22 must
carry the GBU-31A and GBU-31A/B externally,
but the GBU-32 can be carried within the
main weapons bay.

Weapons data

US-Built ground-to-air
weapons

Patriot missile
Guidance

Command, TVM semiactive homing

Weight

1,540 lb

Warhead

161 lb HE blast fragmentation

Max. Range

99 mi

Min. Range

2 mi

Max. Altitude

78,720 ft.

Min. Altitude

200 ft.

Max. Speed

Mach 5.0

Stinger missile
Guidance

Weight

22 lb

Warhead

7 lb HE fragmentation

Max. Range

2.8 mi

Min. Range

0.1 mi

Max. Altitude

12,500 ft.

Min. Altitude

0 ft.

Max. Speed

Mach 2.2

Improved HAWK (IHAWK) missile
Guidance

Semiactive radar homing
(SARH), proportional
navigation

Russian-Built air-to-air
weapons
AA-7 Apex missile
Guidance

IR and semiactive radar
homing (SARH) versions

Weight

1,379 lb

Warhead

165 lb HE fragmentation

Weight

473 lb/517 lb

Max. Range

25 mi

Warhead

66 lb HE fragmentation

Min. Range

1 mi

Max. Range

12 mi

Max. Altitude

59,000 ft.

Min. Range

.6 mi

Min. Altitude

200 ft.

Max. Speed

Mach 2.7

The Apex is the first Russian BVR missile,
developed for use on the MiG-23 Flogger, and
is available in both IR and SARH versions.
Soviet production ended in 1985, but it was
exported to many countries and is likely to be
found anywhere MiG-23s or MiG-29s are
found.

155

Appendix A: Aircraft, Vehicle, and Weapon Reference Data

AA-8 Aphid missile

AA-10 Alamo missile

Guidance

Weight

143 lb

Warhead

86 lb expanding rod

Max. Range

3 mi

Min. Range

0.3 mi

Guidance

IR and semiactive radar
homing (SARH) versions

Weight

559 lb/770 lb

Warhead

86 lb expanding rod

Max. Range

25 mi/47 mi

Min. Range

0.3 mi

The Aphid is a short-range, all-aspect, IRguided dogfight missile similar to the American Sidewinder family of missiles. The standard close-in weapon since the 1970s, it can
be carried by almost all Russian aircraft and
helicopters but is now being replaced by the
AA-11 Archer.

The AA-10 was developed for use on the
MiG-29 and Su-27 and as a replacement for
the AA-7 Apex used on the MiG-23 Flogger.
Fast, extremely maneuverable, difficult to jam
or decoy, and resistant to ground-clutter
effects, the AA-10 Alamo is a potent weapon.

AA-9 Amos missile

AA-11M1/M2 Archer missile

Guidance

Semiactive radar homing
(SARH)

Weight

1078 lb

Warhead

103 lb HE blast/fragmentation

Max. Range

62 mi

Min. Range

12 mi

The AA-9 Amos is a long-range air-to-air missile primarily for use against bombers and
cruise missiles, and is similar to the American
AIM-54 Phoenix missile in many ways. It is the
primary armament of the MiG-31 Foxhound,
and together with the Foxhound’s long range
radar, is a formidable weapons system.

156

Guidance

Weight

231 lb/242 lb

Warhead

16 lb HE fragmentation

Max. Range

12 mi/19 mi

Min. Range

0.2 mi

Developed as a replacement for the AA-8
Aphid, the Archer is possibly the best dogfight
missile in the world. Its high maneuverability
and ability to track targets as much as 60
degrees off boresight (80 degrees for the M2
version), combined with the helmet-mounted
targeting capabilities of modern Russian aircraft, make any aircraft carrying Archers a dangerous foe.

Weapons data

AA-12 Adder missile

SA-11 missile

Guidance

Active radar

Guidance

Weight

385 lb

Semiactive radar homing
(SARH)

Warhead

66 lb HE directed fragmentation

Weight

1,518 lb

Warhead

154 lb HE fragmentation

Max. Range

31 mi

Max. Range

20 mi

Min. Range

0.2 mi

Min. Range

1.9 mi

Max. Altitude

69,000 ft.

Min. Altitude

31 ft.

Max. Speed

Mach 2.5

The most interesting feature of this new air-toair missile is its rear control surfaces, which
have a unique trellis structure. The potential
advantages of this design over more conventional layouts include greater maneuverability
at high angle of attack, enhanced maneuverability for any given fin deflection angle, and
lighter weight. The Adder’s rear control surfaces also fold down, which has led to speculation that it can be carried internally by some
aircraft.

Russian-Built ground-to-air
weapons
SA-10c missile

SA-12a missile
Guidance

Semiactive radar homing
(SARH), inertial

Weight

5,280 lb

Warhead

330 lb HE focused fragmentation

Max. Range

47 mi

Min. Range

4 mi

Max. Altitude

94,000 ft.

Guidance

Targeted-via-missile

Min. Altitude

780 ft.

Weight

3,256 lb

Max. Speed

Mach 5.0

Warhead

32,316 lb HE fragmentation

SA-13 missile

Max. Range

93 mi

Guidance

Min. Range

Weight

92 lb

Max. Altitude

94,000 ft.

Warhead

9 lb HE fragmentation

Min. Altitude

31 ft.

Max. Range

3 mi

Max. Speed

Mach 6.0

Min. Range

0.1 mi

Max. Altitude

10,950 ft.

Min. Altitude

31 ft.

157

Appendix A: Aircraft, Vehicle, and Weapon Reference Data

SA-13 missile
Max. Speed

SA-16 Gimlet/SA-18 Grouse missiles
Mach 2.0

SA-15 missile

Max. Altitude

10,950 ft.

Min. Altitude

31 ft.

Max. Speed

Mach 2.3

Guidance

Command guidance

Weight

363 lb

SA-19 missile

Warhead

33 lb HE fragmentation

Guidance

Max. Range

7.5 mi

Weight

70 lb

Min. Range

1 mi

Warhead

6 lb HE fragmentation

Max. Altitude

18,800 ft.

Max. Range

5 mi

Min. Altitude

31 ft.

Min. Range

0.3 mi

Max. Speed

Mach 2.5

Max. Altitude

19,100 ft.

Min. Altitude

31 ft.

Max. Speed

Mach 1.8

SA-17 missile
Guidance

Semiactive radar homing
(SARH), inertial, datalink

Weight

1,584 lb

Warhead

154 lb HE fragmentation

Max. Range

31 mi

Min. Range

2 mi

Max. Altitude

78,200 ft.

Min. Altitude

31 ft.

Max. Speed

Mach 3.5

SA-16 Gimlet/SA-18 Grouse missiles
Guidance

Weight

24 lb

Warhead

2 lb

Max. Range

3 mi

Min. Range

0.3 mi

158

B Ribbon and Medal Historical Data
This appendix lists all of the ribbons and medals available in iF-22 Raptor. They are listed in
order of importance, from easiest to hardest to
obtain.

Air Force Training Ribbon
This ribbon was established on October 12,
1980, and is awarded to Air Force personnel
that complete flight training.

Air Force Recognition Ribbon
This ribbon was established on October 12,
1980, and is given to Air Force personnel in
recognition of special accomplishments.

Bosnian Conflict Victory Ribbon
(fictional)
This ribbon was established immediately following the Bosnian Conflict and is awarded to
all armed service personnel who served in that
theater.

Russo-Ukrainian War Victory Ribbon
(fictional)
This ribbon was established immediately following the Russo-Ukrainian War and is

awarded to all armed service personnel who
served in that theater.

Air Medal
This medal was established on May 11, 1942,
and is given to armed services personnel who
distinguish themselves by meritorious
achievement while participating in aerial
flight or for sustained distinction in the performance of duties.

Air Force Achievement Medal
This medal was established on April 20, 1980,
and is given to Air Force personnel for outstanding achievement, meritorious service, or
acts of heroism.

Purple Heart
This was established by George Washington in
1782 and is awarded to armed service personnel wounded in action. It is also awarded posthumously to persons killed from wounds
received in action.

Distinguished Flying Cross
This medal was established on July 2, 1926,
and is awarded to armed services personnel

159

Appendix B: Ribbon and Medal Historical Data

who distinguish themselves by acts of heroism
or meritorious achievement while participating in aerial flight. This medal was first
awarded to Captain Charles Lindbergh for his
solo flight across the Atlantic.

Air Force Distinguished Service Medal
This medal was established on July 6, 1960,
and is awarded to Air Force personnel who
distinguish themselves through meritorious
service while serving in a position of great
responsibility.

Silver Star
This medal was established on July 9, 1918,
and is awarded to armed services personnel for
gallantry in action, but not of a degree warranting a Air Force Cross or the Congressional
Medal of Honor.

160

Air Force Cross
This medal was established on July 6, 1960,
and is awarded to Air Force personnel for
extraordinary heroism not justifying a Congressional Medal of Honor. The first award of
this medal was made posthumously to Major
Rudolf Anderson Jr. for actions during the
Cuban Missile Crisis.

Air Force Congressional Medal of
Honor
This medal was established on July 6, 1960,
and is awarded to Air Force personnel who
distinguish themselves by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of their lives, above and
beyond the call of duty. The first award of this
medal was made to Major Bernard Fisher on
January 19, 1967.

C Pre-scripted Communication
Messages

This appendix lists the contents and possible
recipients of pre-scripted messages. You can
still type a chat message to any of these recipients, but computer-controlled objects won’t
understand them. When you initiate a communications message, a list of recipients is displayed. To choose a recipient, press the
corresponding number, and a list of messages
available for that recipient is displayed. To
send one of the messages, press its corresponding number. For example, to tell your
flight to cover you, initiate a UHF communication by pressing the U key, then press 1, followed by 1.

8—Abort mission and return to base
9—Disengage and form on my wing
0—Check in

2: Wingman 2 (recipient)
Same as messages available for “1: Your flight
(recipient).”

3: Wingman 3 (recipient)
Same as messages available for “1: Your flight
(recipient).”

4: Wingman 4 (recipient)

1: Your flight (recipient)

Same as messages available for “1: Your flight
(recipient).”

1—Cover me

5: AWACS (recipient)

2—Engage my current target

1—Request IFDL

3—Engage my current target from formation

2—Disconnect IFDL

4—Engage remaining targets

3—Request Bogey Dope

5—Engage remaining targets from formation
6—Radio silence
7—End radio silence

6: FAC (recipient)
1—Inform that you are in the area
2—Inform that you are “In Hot”
3—Request IFDL

161

Appendix C: Pre-scripted Communication Messages

4—Disconnect IFDL
5—Inform that you are leaving area

7: Ground (recipient)
1—Listen to ATIS airport information
2—Request flight route clearance

8: Tower (recipient)
1—Request permission to take off
2—Request permission to land

9: General messages (recipient)
1—“Roger” last transmission
2—Send a “Mayday” call
3—Request “Steers” from nearest command
and control unit
4—Request “Launch the air base attack!” (only
in multiplayer head-to-head capture the flag)

0: Escorting flight (recipient)
Same as messages available for “1: Your flight
(recipient).”

162

Glossary

AAA. Anti-Aircraft Artillery.
AAR. Air-to-Air Refueling.
AAW. Anti-Air Warfare.
ACC. Air Component Commander.
ACE. Airborne Command Element (such as
AWACS or ABCCC).

ARIP. Air Refueling Initial Point. A point on
the ART at which receiver aircraft should enter
the track.
ARM. Anti-Radiation Missile.
ART. Air Refueling Track. A preplanned track
flown by tankers for aerial refueling.

ACM. Air Combat Maneuvering.

ASL. Above Sea Level. Used to indicate an altitude measured from sea level.

ACT. Air Combat Tactics.

ASM. Air-to-Surface Missile.

AFAC. Airborne Forward Air Controller.

ASOC. Air Support Operations Center.

AGL. Above Ground Level.

ASUW. Anti-Surface Warefare

AGM. Air-to-Ground Missile.

ASW. Anti-Submarine Warfare.

AI. Air Interdiction or Air Intercept.

ATO. Air Tasking Order. The official document assigning all aspects of missions in a
given period of time. Also known as a frag.

ALO. Air Liaison Officer.
AoA. Angle of Attack.
AOB. Air Order of Battle.
ARCP. Air Refueling Control Point. A point
on the ART at which receiver aircraft should be
prepared to initiate refueling.

AWACS. Airborne Warning and Control System. The USAF’s E-3 Sentry.
BAI. Battlefield Air Interdiction.
BDA. Bomb Damage Assessment. Post-strike
evaluation of enemy targets.
BFM. Basic Fighter Maneuvers.

163

Glossary

BRA. Bearing, range, and altitude of target.
BREAK AWAY. Call given by a tanker or
receiver to indicate an immediate separation,
usually due to an emergency.
BZ. Buffer Zone. Airspace adjacent to a combat operating area where special restriction
apply.
BZ. Bravo Zulu. A naval term indicating a job
well done.
BVR. Beyond Visual Range.
CAP. Combat Air Patrol. An anti-air patrol
anchored to a particular position or ground
feature.
CAS. Close Air Support.
CBU. Cluster Bomb Unit.
CCA. Command and Control Agency.
C2. Command and Control.
C3. Command, Control, and Communications.

ECM. Measures taken to minimize the effectiveness of electronic emissions, such as radar,
generally through jamming or deception.
ECCM. Electronic Counter-Countermeasures.
Measure taken to counter electronic countermeasures. For example, enemy radar locks up
your aircraft. Your countermeasure is to jam
that frequency. The enemy’s counter-countermeasure is to change frequency.
EID. Electronic Identification. Identifying a
target through electronic means.
ELINT. Electronic Intelligence.
EMCON. Emission Control. Preplanned
means of reducing electronic emissions. Usually set up with four levels, EMCON 1 through
EMCON 4, with 4 being the most stringent
(no emissions).
EO. Electro-Optical.
EOB. Electronic Order of Battle.
ETA. Estimated Time of Arrival.

C3I. Command, Control, Communications,
and Intelligence.

EW. Electronic Warfare or Early Warning.

Chaff. Aluminized plastic strips used to
deceive or block radar transmissions.

FEBA. Forward Edge of the Battle Area.

Clock Code. Position system used in aviation
to locate objects outside the flight. Twelve
o’clock references the nose of the aircraft; three
o’clock, the right wing; six o’clock, the tail; and
nine o’clock, the left wing. May combine with
high/low level to indicate elevation.
Comm Jamming. Intentional disruption of
communications.
CONUS. Continental United States.
CSAR. Combat Search and Rescue.
DCA. Defensive Counter Air.

FAC. Forward Air Controller.
Frag. Fragmentary Order. Same at ATO (Air
Tasking Order).
FSCL. Fire Support Coordination Line.
GBU. Guided Bomb Unit.
GCI. Ground Controlled Intercept.
GOB. Ground Order of Battle.
GPS. Global Positioning System.
HARM. High Speed Anti-Radiation Missile.
The AGM-88.
Have Quick. A jam-resistant radio system
used in aircraft.
HUD. Heads-Up-Display.

164

Glossary

IADS. Integrated Air Defense System.
IFF/SIF. Identification, Friend or Foe. System
used to electronically identify radar located
aircraft as either friendly or enemy.
ILS. Instrument Landing System.

number of defined weapons delivered in a
defined manner. For example, the Pk of a
heavy tank with one Mk-82 500 pound bomb
delivered in a 10( daylight dive at 500 knots
by an A-10 is less than 10. (less 10 percent).

IMC. Instrument Meteorological Conditions.

POPEYE. Flying in an area of reduced visibility.

IR. Infrared.

Rockeye. MK-20, Cluster Bomb Unit.

JFACC. Joint Force Air Component Commander. The Commander of the aviation
units involved in a joint operation.

ROE. Rules of Engagement. Limitations or
rules placed on aircrew performing their mission. Implemented as a control mechanism.

JFC. Joint Force Commander. The Commander of all units involved in a joint operation.

RWR. Radar Warning Receiver. System including cockpit indicator to warn pilots of radar
signals sweeping the aircraft.

LANTIRN. Low-Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infrared for Night. Detachable system
used to give aircraft night and precision targeting ability.

SA. Situation Awareness.

LCC. Land Component Commander. Ground
equivalent of the JFACC.

Scramble. Immediate launch of aircraft to
counter a particular threat.

LGB. Laser-Guided Bomb.

SEAD. Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses.

MedEvac. Medical Evacuation.

SHRIKE. AGM-45 Anti-Radiation missile.

MFD. Multifunctional Display.

TAC-A. Tactical Air Coordinator, Airborne. A
person designated to coordinate air operations while airborne. Usually in AWACS.

MSL. Mean Sea Level. Used to indicate that
the preceding altitude was measured from sea
level as opposed to the ground. ASL equivalent.
Mutual Support. Two or more aircraft supporting one another through tactics.
NCA. National Command Authority. Direction of the Secretary of Defense or higher.
NORDO. Term used to indicate aircraft has
no working radio.

SAM. Surface-to-Air Missile.
SAR. Search and Rescue.

TACC. Tactical Air Control Center. A groundbased facility used to control air operations
and make tactical decisions.
TACP. Tactical Air Control Party. An element
usually found with ground combat units to
control air assets assigned to that unit.
TACS. Tactical Air Control System.

ONC. Operational Navigation Chart.

TOT. Time Over Target. A time assigned to
arrive/attack a target.

PDA. Personal Display Assistant.

TPC. Tactical Pilotage Chart.

Pk. Probability of Kill (P-sub-K). The probability of killing a target based on a defined

Vc. Velocity, Closure. The speed of closure
between two airborne targets.

165

Glossary

VID. Visual Identification.
VMC. Visual Meteorological Conditions.
Weather with a ceiling greater than 3,000 ft.
and visibility better than 5 miles.
Wild Weasel. Aircraft dedicated to locating
and destroying enemy radar.

166

Designer’s Notes

Project History
The “F-22 project” began in mid-1995 when
“Wild” Bill Stealey decided that he wanted to
create a state-of-the-art flight simulation based
on the F-22, the winner of the Air Force’s
Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) competition
to replace the F-15 as America’s premier air
superiority fighter. Preliminary project planning began with Joe Rutledge and Doug Kubel
outlining resource requirements and personnel needs. Game Designer Bruce Milligan performed preliminary research into the
experimental YF-22 and then proposed design
changes necessary to produce the F-22. By January of 1996, game designers Michael McCoy
and Michael Chen were assigned to the project
full-time. James Harler came onboard in April.
By now a core team of programmers and artists had been assembled and a brief preliminary design document was prepared.
By April of 1996 full-scale coding began, coinciding with the first draft of the detailed
design document. The team reached the Alpha
milestone, defined as having all major elements in the game and working to some

degree, in January of 1997. April 1997 marked
the Beta milestone meaning all coding was
complete with only bug and crash fixes
remaining. Finally, after almost two years,
iF-22 Raptor was completed in June of 1997.
With its ability to “assimilate” anyone who
came near it, the project became known as the
“F-22 Collective.” Head of the “Collective”
was our Vice President of Engineering and
Technology, Doug Kubel, who not only led
and coordinated the team, but also contributed to programming tasks. Throughout the
project, valuable game design assistance and
experience was provided by Arnold Hendrick.
James Harler, a retired Marine Corps A-6 bombardier/navigator, provided an invaluable,
although sometimes unsolicited, anchor to
“reality.”
The outstanding programmers of the “Collective” (in order of assimilation) are Elliot Kim,
Chris Tector, Dr. Yates Fletcher, Mitchel Soltys,
Malcolm Harwood, Chris Cottrell, Tracey
McQuillen, Mike Dickheiser, Rick Campbell,
Jay Thrash, Kevin Anderson, and Marcus Nordamstam. Artists Allison Britt, John Dupree,
Marco Garcia, and David Knox provided the

167

Designer’s Notes

excellent artwork and models you enjoy in
iF-22 Raptor.

data sets are large, requiring CD storage, and
the terrain may be blocky at low altitude.

I-Magic contracted Numerical Design, Ltd.
(NDL) to help develop our 3D rendering system, and DEMON-1, Science Applications
International Corporation (SAIC) to assist
with the complexities of realistic flight modeling. Mark Finch at NDL and, Bruce Hildreth
and David Gingras at SAIC merit special mention for their extraordinary efforts throughout
this project. Information Integration and
Imaging (I3) provided the satellite photography and digital elevation mapping data for the
terrain. Throughout the game both LockheedMartin and Pratt and Whitney provided us
with immeasurable assistance.

Initially, it was proposed that players be able
to choose between flight leader (commanding
only one flight: up to four aircraft) and squadron commander (commanding the entire
squadron: up to 18 aircraft) levels of control in
the game. After much debate we decided that,
at least for our first simulation, squadron commander access was too ambitious a goal. For
future flight sims we have put this item near
the top of enhancement list.

Finally, many thanks to the families and
friends of the development team for their
understanding and support of our efforts.
Without them, none of this would have been
possible.

Feature Decisions
Throughout development we made many feature decisions. A number of the feature decisions/discussions became quite heated as
members of the team couldn’t agree, while
other features were deemed desirable yet
impossible to implement due to time and
resource restrictions. The following is an
attempt to clarify some of the feature decisions
the we made.
Since the F-22 is first and foremost a mediumto-high altitude air superiority fighter, and we
wanted to provide the most realistic experience possible, the team decided to use satellite
photography textures mapped onto real world
elevation data. The result is spectacular out-ofthe cockpit views of real terrain, with every feature in its place, just as a pilot would see. As
with anything, there are compromises. The

168

One of the key features in iF-22 Raptor is the
“active” cockpit where every button and switch
moves and operates the aircraft. To move your
view around the aircraft we decided on a fixed
rather than “free” or “virtual” view system.
Virtual cockpit systems were deemed to
demand too much memory to operate well
and still maintain the active cockpit and terrain system. The question of whether or not to
create a virtual cockpit view system was a hotly
debated one. In all probability, its inclusion in
future sims will be decided by the reaction to
its exclusion from iF-22 Raptor.
The two theaters provided in iF-22 Raptor
present different areas of the world in which to
fly and fight different opponents. The Bosnian
Conflict is based upon a hypothetical eruption
of hostilities in the now quiet Bosnia-Serbia
conflict, while the Russo-Ukrainian War is
based on a hypothetical invasion by Russian
forces in support of an ethnic Russian minority. These choices were not intended to imply
anything about any nationality, religious or
ethnic group. They simply portray plausible
future scenarios that might require the deployment of American forces in support of U.S.
interests.
Unlike most other flight simulations, iF-22
Raptor uses a dynamic mission/campaign generation system so that no two missions are

Designer’s Notes

alike. Every mission you fly puts you in a truly
“alive” world with full air and ground wars
being conducted by both sides. This feature
took considerable effort and is not without its
flaws. Since it is truly dynamic, there is no way
to guarantee that you’ll always intercept aircraft when you’re on a mission. At times we’ve
seen friendly aircraft and SAM units destroy
aircraft you were sent out to intercept, leaving
you with no targets. Other times, the player
may feel compelled to abort his mission and
return to base due to the presence of unforeseen, and overwhelming, enemy resistance.
This is a feature, not a bug, and forces the
player to be as cunning and inventive as a real
pilot needs to be.
In iF-22 Raptor we have included a form of
multiplayer play called capture the flag. While
this style of play is common among first-person “shoot ’em ups”, it’s relatively new to the
flight simulator world, and offers a fresh alternative to the “deathmatch multiplayer rut”
found in so many other titles.
Throughout the design of the game we
reviewed as many unclassified sources as we
could for information about the real F-22.
Most of the information discovered was incorporated directly into the game; however, some
was not. Many sources quoted the F-22s top
speed to be Mach 1.78, which to us seemed far
too slow. After talking with SAIC, we decided
to make our F-22 capable of Mach 2.4, which
we feel is closer to the real F-22s top speed. We
also found that the F-22 has less than onethousandth of the radar cross section (RCS) of
an F-15. While this number is probably accurate for the real F-22, it does not make for
good gameplay, so we have deliberately understated the F-22’s stealth capabilities. It’s just
no fun to fly around and never be seen or
attacked.

Any company dealing with modern military
affairs needs an information policy. It is both
my practice and the policy of Interactive Magic
to never seek classified information. If material is classified, we simply don’t want to see it.
We’d rather make our own estimates and
avoid all the limitations that come with knowing Defense Department secrets. This game
represents our best estimates at this time, and
we’ll keep on looking for new data for future
games. Actually, it’s amazing how much information you can get from unclassified sources,
provided you know where to look and how to
interpret the statistics.
This product is the first in a series of 20th-century aircraft simulations from I-Magic. We’re
interested in your suggestions for future games
and scenarios. The best way to contact us is via
the Internet; just visit our web site
http://www.imagicgames.com
and look for the discussion groups we maintain there.
We hope that you will enjoy playing iF-22
Raptor as much as we have enjoyed making it
for you.
Michael McCoy Jr.
Lead Designer
iF-22 Raptor

169

Designer’s Notes

170

Credits

Executive
Producers

Doug “Leadfoot” Kubel

Simulation
Design

Michael “Toolman” McCoy

Joe “Warden” Rutledge

Mark “D-Man” Finch,
Numerical Design Ltd.
Robert “Prez” Stevenson

Allison “Arti” Britt

Pilot Photos

Paul “Seal” Potera

John “Blibdool” Dupree

Newscasters

Lynne “LAB” Beaman

Dave “Noodle” Knox
Rick “Breeze” Campbell

Manual

Jim “Weasel” Harler

Mike “Dragon” Dickheiser
Elliot “Raven” Kim
Mitch “Twister” Soltys
Chris “Doody” Tector
Jay “Nole” Thrash
Tracy “ImTigger”
McQuillen

Michael “Toolman” McCoy
Michael “Spectre” Chen

Chris “Squeezer” Cottrell
Malcolm “Mage” Harwood

Chris “Froggy” Roby

Paul “Spellbound”
Spelman

Marco “Caveman” Garcia
Programmers

Yates “Doctor” Fletcher

Multimedia
Production

Michael “Spectre” Chen
Jim “Weasel” Harler

Artists

Realtime 3-D
Engine

Dash-34
Document

Terry Yingling

Manual Layout
& Editing

Sarah “PITA” O’Keefe,
Scriptorium Publishing
Services, Inc.
Alan “FontMaster” Pringle,
Scriptorium Publishing
Services, Inc.

Kevin “Warthog” Anderson

171

Credits

Marketing &
Public Relations

Gina “Ice Queen” Waluk
Dave “Oscar” Murray
Lynn “LAB” Beaman

External
Playtesters
(continued)

David Johnson
Chris “Psycho” Helmstetter
Daryl Dean

Jenny “Packrat” Dilworth

Harry Chittick

Brian “PinCushion” Tate

Scott Minnier

Quality Manager

Dave “Greeney” Green

Thomas Spann

Internal Playtest
Coordinators

Joe “Rook” Allen

Bill “Cowboy” Wilson

Mike “Bart” Pearson

Robert Hodge

Internal
Playtesters

Marc “Sniper” Racine

Barry “4th Horseman”
Spikes

Brian “Brebane” Davis
Joe “Lzfaire” Myers

Craig “WildFlyer”
Mayberry

Carlin “Novice” Gartrell

Steve Grant

Ismini “Atari” Boinidiris

Don “Ace” Mappin

Ted “Scooby” Wagoner

Dave “Snake” Hammond

Adam “Madcat” Turner

Jason “Pirate” Henderson

Becky Staring

F-22
Aerodynamics,
Flight Control, &
Engine Models

Bruce Hildreth, Science
Applications International
Corporation

Terrain Data

Information Integration
and Imaging

Nicholas Caldwell

Music

Robert Cole

Andy Skerritt

F119 Engine
Sounds

Pratt and Whitney

Jason Sircy
External
Playtesters

Jim “Plata” Pedicord
Stephen “Mage” Lackey
Dave “Spaz” Pastula
Craig “Bucko” Bucklin
Ed “Skater” Lynch

Terry “Mustang” Yingling
Paul Adkins
Evan “Buzz” Nau
Jerry Titus
Cary “Riddler” McCormick
Paul Papasauas
Tad Ford
Steven “DocACE” Chimura

172

David R. Gingras, Science
Applications International
Corporation

Special
Mark “Sleepy” Marek
Acknowledgments Lt. Col. Michael “Samurai” Stevens USMC Retired
Lt. Brian “Killer 40” Pierce
Many thanks to the families and friends of the
development team for their understanding
and support of our efforts.

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